The discipline of anthropology as traditionally understood in the United States makes a claim, unique among the scholarly enterprises, to constitute the site of a genuinely holistic study of humankind, encompassing all the forms of diversity of our species both today and throughout its history. In an era of specialization, the grounds for such a claim, or the necessity of such a discipline, are being challenged. Yet racism, arguably the most important social issue in global perspective in our time, provides an argument for the necessity of such a discipline. The oblique relationship between the nature of human diversity and the phenomenon of contemporary racism as a worldview is precisely suited to exploration by the tools developed in our discipline and nowhere else. An understanding of the way human diversity becomes meaningful within racism requires collaboration between biological anthropologists and cultural anthropologists. The history of the emergence of this system of meaning, and the nature of its contemporary reproduction, is enormously clarified when such disciplines as historical archaeology, cognitive anthropology, and linguistic anthropology bring their special tools to the task. The expertise of applied and practicing anthropologists is uniquely suited to the design of programs of intervention and public education. None of us commands all of the specialist depth that is required in each dimension of untangling the nature of racism and developing new strategies to combat it. but our common training as anthropologists can permit us to work together and reinvent the historical commitment of our discipline to the resolution of this great issue. CSAS
 
 

FIGHTING INVISIBILITY AND SILENCE: THE CONSTRUCTION OF OPPOSITIONAL DISCURSIVE SPACE, AND VISIONS OF THE STATE IN FRAGMENTED SOCIETIES (Thursday afternoon, 3:30-5:30)

The papers in this panel address the construction of oppositional discursive spaces in Slovakia, Turkey, Mongolia, Russia, and Zanzibar, all currently in dramatic political flux. We are concerned to seek out the strategies used by people who attempt, from a disadvantaged position with respect to their governments, to articulate their views on, and visions of, appropriate state power. Our papers, while focused on different world regions, speak to one another through a common theoretical commitment to exploring the shapes of state and popular power, in the structures that give voice to, and selectively silence, certain populations. We look for the elusive spaces and practices in and through which the limits of state and popular power are tested, revealed, and altered by individuals and groups. Hart's paper reveals the potency of icons in Turkish political life, showing that what cannot be said in public space is often communicated through the creative juxtaposition of 'secular' and 'religious' imagery. Arnold highlights the role of sung poetry and 'traditional' speech genres in the construction of subversive political communities in Zanzibar. Acheson focuses on the strategic use of silence in Slovak reactions to the 'divorce' of the Czechoslovak Federation. Petrie investigates historical changes in the Mongolian state's use and re-configuration of folkloric symbols in the national festival of Ikh Naadam, with a view to understanding Mongolian national identity in a post-Soviet context. Metzo explores the use of shamanistic and Buddhist traditions in Buryatian efforts to claim authority over local environmental resources that are as yet under state control. CSAS

A GLIMPSE OF CURRENT TRENDS IN POLITICS AND CULTURE IN THE FORMER SOVIET UNION AND YUGOSLAVIA (Friday morning, 8:30-10:15)

It is undeniable that recent events have brought tremendous change in the political and economic systems of the former Soviet Union and Yugoslavia. But what can be said of these changes beyond their glib assessment as the failure of communism? What has remained the same amid the turmoil? What of the issue of understanding across cultural boundaries in this context? This session brings together a diverse panel of scholars with expertise derived from participant observation and the literature to explore these questions. CSAS

THE HISTORY OF THE CSAS: AN OPEN FORUM FEATURING PAST PRESIDENTS OF CSAS (AND OTHER DISTINGUISHED ELDERS) (Friday morning 10:30-noon)

The Central States Anthropological Society is celebrating seventy-five years of meetings (with a few years missed during the war years). Founded as the first section of the American Anthropological Association it held its first meeting at the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago, Illinois on April 21, 1922. The stated purpose of the association was "to unite persons interested in anthropology who reside in the middle west, to provide them with a medium for regular meetings, to promote the cause of anthropology in general, and to stimulate research in the archaeology and history of the middle west in particular." A full list of meeting sites and presidents of the association can be found elsewhere in the program/abstracts book. The purpose of this open forum is to bring together some of our most distinguished elders to reflect on our past and to consider the future as an association. Moderated by current president, James W. Dow, the forum is open to all. CSAS

OUT OF BOUNDS, OUT OF MIND: GEOGRAPHICS OF PARTITION IN BALKAN NATIONALISM AND ETHNOGRAPHY (Friday morning, 10:30-noon)

Ethnic violence in the Balkans has stimulated a resurgence of interest in nationalism in both popular and scholarly discourse, leading on the one hand to an unexamined rhetoric of "Balkanization" (with all its historical echoes) and on the other to increased awareness of the constructedness of ethnic--and other--identities. Our papers take as their point of departure the assumption that nationalisms evolve within a continually renegotiated self-other dialectic. It is a truism that, by whatever criteria the national community imagines itself, it must do so with regard to some alien object. But we are primarily concerned with the media through which nations (and cultures, and individuals) imagine themselves and thereby constitute their identities. Some of these constitutive media include 'folk' music, electronic communications, and the discourse surrounding gender. In each case, the medium is no simple and transparent conveyor of meaning, but instead the form of the medium structures the ways in which identity may be (re)negotiated through it. Implicit in the way dialectics of alterity are deployed in the intertextual tropes of real discourse, then, is a mapping of ideological categories onto new semantic domains: Hence, the prominance of symbolic geographies, or the use of spatial metaphors to (re)conceptualize identity, in our analyses. CSAS

NATIVE AMERICAN REPATRIATION (Friday afternoon, 1:20-3:15 and 3:30-5:30)

The 1990 federal statute titled "Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act" and referred to commonly by its acronym, NAGPRA, has signaled a change in federal policy and in museum process in regard to Native American cultural items and human remains. The political differentiation of collector and collected is being discarded in favor of a more collaborative approach to the collection, protection, and representation of Native American cultures. NAGPRA has also introduced some fascinating cultural conundrums: it mandates the return of "sacred items" and "items of cultural patrimony" but does not define those terms; it requires inventories but cannot require repatriation of items to non-recognized or non-American tribes; it requires negotiations with tribal governments but not with tribal organizations or families. The papers in this panel exemplify the importance of NAGPRA and explicate some of the issues above. The papers are all presented by University of Chicago students, faculty or affiliates, and (hopefully) will be discussed by the repatriation officer from the Milwaukee Public Museum (Ray Fogelson of the University of Chicago is the alternate discussant). CSAS/ARS

JAPANESE WOODBLOCK PRINTS AND BEYOND: THE 19TH CENTURY TRAVEL PRINTS AND THEIR VISION (Friday afternoon, 1:30-3:15 and 3:30-5)

The Edo period (1603-1868) in Japan was the time of the alleged isolation from outside influence to the perceived threat by outside barbarians. The Meiji period (1868-1912) turned the "threat" of outside barbarians into an explosive synergy of Westernization of "primitive" Japan. The papers in this session will investigate the imagination of these particular periods of Japanese history through a mode of movement, i.e., travel. During the Edo period, travel became increasingly popular as evidenced in many publications of meisho zue "illustrated guidebooks of famous places" and it developed to be institutionalized during the Meiji period as exemplified by shugaku ryoko "school excursions". Through traveling, the Japanese began exploring their own environments. The records, especially the visual records, of travel are often personal narratives. Each record tells us different stories depending on our own notions of travel. The foci of the session are two-fold: 1) examination of themes or motifs in visual arts on travel: major highways (e.g., Tokaido, Kisokaido), famous places (e.g., Edo meisho zue "Illustrated Guides of Famous Places in Edo"), and famous views (e.g., Oomi hakkei "Eight Views of Biwa Lake & Oomi") and 2) exploration of imagery and symbols: what images are presented and represented in the arts, how they relate to selfhood of the Japanese, and what stories they narrate to us. The session is a journey, starting from visual records, away into imagery, symbols, and stories, and back to visual records now fully anchored in sociocultural contexts and people. CSAS

GARDEN CITY, KANSAS: A DECADE OF RESEARCH ON CHANGING ETHNIC RELATIONS (Friday afternoon, 1:30-3:15 and 3:30-5)

From cattle drives in the 1870s to beef processing in the 1990s, Garden City, Kansas has emerged as a center of rural industrialization and increasing ethnic diversity on the High Plains. As a result, it has been the focus of intense scrutiny by social scientists and journalists for the past decade. This session brings together those who live and work in Garden City and those who have studied it to discuss how Garden City has been transformed into"the most cosmopolitan community in Kansas." Drawing on both historical and comparative materials, presenters will situate the challenges confronting Garden City within the broader context of social, economic, and political change taking place throughout rural America. Specific topics to be discussed include: the history of immigration in Garden City; gender performance in packing towns; the delivery of health and social services; barriers to health care for children; relations between landlords and their immigrant tenants; and the anthropology of the rural Midwest. CSAS

THE ANTHROPOLOGY OF REPRODUCTION (Friday afternoon, 1:30-3:15)

As new technologies enable more far-reaching interventions in the process of reproduction, society in general and anthropologists in particular have become increasingly concerned with just how to distinguish between the "natural" and the "artificial" in human sexuality and procreation. Panelists address the relation between biological and social developments and constraints associated with menarche and girls' experience of their newly reproductive bodies, the degree to which individuals seem ready to influence the characteristics of their offspring when given the opportunity, the impact of varying concepts of the person on attitudes toward conception and abortion,the social meanings and consequences of heroic measures to save at-risk premature babies, and the conditions that govern the quality and degree of bonding between mother and child. The consensus of the papers is that, even in this most "natural" of human functions, what is fixed and given by nature pales in comparison with what is defined--and modified--by cultural construction and technological intervention. CSAS

A GLANCE AT RECENT RESEARCH IN THE ANTHROPOLOGY OF THE MARTIAL ARTS (Saturday morning, 8:30-10:15 and 10:30-12:15, followed by open forum demonstrations ('show and tell') Saturday afternoon, 1:30-4)

The martial arts and their sociocultural and historical contexts have become more and more popular as the subjects of scholarly/participatory study in recent years. This session offfers an eclectic sample of recent work in the anthropology of the martial arts. A show-and-tell component is scheduled for the afternoon. CSAS

TESTING/TEASING/TRANSCENDING BOUNDARIES: THRIVING, HOARDING, AND TRICKSTER (Saturday 8:30-4:30 with breaks)

Boundaries sizzle with process--emerging, fading, bifurcating, and behaving in ways simultaneously transparent and opaque to our familar logics. Although scholars acknowledge dynamics, research tends to privilege the less perplexing, more concrete precipitates of process. This symposium peers on both/all sides of the edges in space, time, matter/energy, and information, with special attention to the generative in Trickster, celebration, excess, and sufficiency. CSAS

CURRENT RESEARCH IN BIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY (Saturday morning, 8:30-10:15) A brief session in biological anthropology covering a variety of topics in current research in human paleontology and case studies in skeletalbiology. Specific topics addressed include speech in the Archaic Homo sapiens, manifestations of psychosurgery and other medical procedures in human bone, and forensic anthropological reconstruction from skeletal remains. CSAS

TRANSFORMATIONS OF RELIGIOUS SUBJECTS AND OBJECTS IN THE GLOBAL CONTEXTS OF CHRISTIANITY (Saturday morning, 8:30-10:45)

At a moment in which global and local sociocultural exchanges have become increasingly prominent and where religion has found a vitality unforeseen by theories of modernity, the constitution of Christian subjectivities becomes a crucial question. New technologies of communication as well as changing horizons of value within and between local, national, and international domains have altered the spatiotemporal topography upon which religions ritual and faith have been constructed. In light of these conditions, it may be supposed that the relation of religious subjects to mediating forms undergoes a transformation with implications for the creation of community. This panel explores the nature and varieties of such a transformation around the world. It brings a discussion of both institutional and diffuse forms of Christianity. One issue which emerges is that of the mediation of religious "tradition" and religious subjectivity through objects, both material and conceptual. The modalities of this mediation will be considered, from the appropriation of material and symbolic forms within a religious field, to reflexive meta-discourses of tradition and self-identity. In this, we ask how certain objects come to mediate the production of religious subjects and communities, and how the specificity of form relates to the context of this production. ARS

TOWARDS AN ETHNOGRAPHY OF MUSEUMS (Saturday morning, 10:30-noon)

Recent anthropological research in and on museums points to the ways in which museums contribute to constructions of culture, identity, nationalism and heritage. The papers on this panel hope to contribute to this anthropological conversation about museums through a series of ethnographic accounts of a variety of museums from convential art and anthropology museums, to virtual museums, to national parks. Each paper reexamines the museum from an anthropological perspective--that is, as a particular form of cultural practice and a particular kind of cultural institution--exploring museums as sites for the production of cultural knowledge that shape our understanding of ourselves as well as others. We look at collecting and display as culturally specific practices and how museums shape cultural identity in order to understand how cultures are constructed and transformed within the exhibition halls of themuseum. CSAS

ARCHAEOLOGY EAST AND WEST: RECENT RESEARCH IN THE CIRCUM-MEDITERRANEAN REGION AND NORTH AMERICA (Saturday morning, 10:30-12:30)

The papers in this session cover a broad range geographically and chronologically. Areas of interest are the Midwestern US, Greece, Carthage, and the Levant, while the studies span the Iron Age through the Medieval period in the circum-Mediterranean, and the Archaic-Late Prehistoric and recent historical era (19th-20th centuries) in North America. The unifying themes are several. One is a focus on typology. The creation and use of categoies of archaeological materials is fundamental and underlies all interpretation. A second theme is the relationship betwen historical and archaeological data. Many of the studies encompass both types of information and confront the issue of empirical verification in dealing with such material. The use of historical texts adds both greater potential depth and additional problems to our reconstructions of the past. A third theme is the importance of models in providing order and theoretical support for our analysis. The various studies involve, at some level, the construction of models, which help both to summarize a body of data and to explain some complex cultural behaviors, such as the use of relics, mortuary behavior, stylistic variation in basic tool types, and the positioning of sites on the landscape. The studies demonstrate that despite the differences in time and space, certain explanatory frameworks lend to archaeology a fundamental cohesion. CSAS

THE NATIVE GAZE: ANTHROPOLOGY IN NORTHEASTERN KANSAS (Saturday afternoon, 1:30-3:15)

Anthropologists have increasingly begun to turn the magnifying glass on their own societies. This session will explore research carried out in northeastern Kansas to show how the skills of native ethnographers can offer important insights into American society. Papers will share themes in economic anthropology and will include topics of interest to social theorists as well as to policy makers. They also reflect the diversity of researchers' interests as well as the diversity of cultural phenomena worthy of anthropologists' attention in the Central States. These include a study of identity formation among stigmatized workers, analysis of tourism development strategieis in Lawrence, Kansas; a sensitive analysis of two Asian immigrants' narratives on adapting to American society; examination of the relationships between power, land use decisions, and discourses in the loss of farmland to dam and park construction; and a comparative study of public and home schools and their implications. CSAS

EXPERIMENTAL ARCHAEOLOGY (Saturday afternoon, 1:30-3:15 and 3:30-4:30)

In order to translate the material remains found in historic and prehistoric sites into statements about behavior, archaeologists must rely on bridging statements, often referred to as "middle range" theory. Controlled experimentation and ethnographic observation are the two primary means for generating methods for relating behavior to archaeological research. Possible topics for experimental research include usewear, materials science, manufacturing and construction techniques, food storage, and formation processes. The experiments presented in this symposium are the results of student research within the context of a Grinnell College class on experimental archaeology and ethnoarchaeology. CSAS

CULTURES AND DEVELOPMENTS (Sunday morning, 8:30-10:15 and 10:30-noon)

Some peoples of the world are actively seeking development, while others are trying to avoid it; or, at least, its destructive effects. This session looks at particular situations where "development" is ongoing, and at the participation of both local and distant peoples in these events. We also look at changes over time, and at processes now central to the concept of "development": the effects of trade, of conservation practices and techniques, and of new technology on local cultures. We look at the ideas and images people have of their environments, of their way of life, and at how they see change in relation to these. We also look at theories concerning development: who benefits, and who does not? How shall we educate ourselves and others, how can we engage in development effectively or prevent it? and what is the role of anthropologists, both in the past and in the future, in understanding or participating in change. CSAS

RAIDING PATTERNS IN INDO-EUROPEAN SOCIETIES: BEGINNINGS TO MIGRATION PERIOD (Sunday morning, 8:30-10:15 and 10:30-noon)

Raiding was an integral cultural process of many Indo-European societies, and all ethnolinguistic groups of this family practiced some aspect of raiding. We define a raid here as the organized taking of property or people from one group by another by violent means, as opposed to simple brigandage or robbery. The session's general purpose is 1) to account for such behavior as part of an Indo-European heritage and 2) to discern general patterns of Indo-European raiding. Each paper in this session presents a specific example of raiding in or by a culture. Evidence for this type of stealing comes from archaeological, linguistic, and ethnohistorical sources. Proto-Indo-European words for raiding warfare have been reconstructed and so these patterns have a common ancestry. We discuss political and economic motivations for raiding, the military aspects of conducting such strikes, and the consequences of these actions. Organized rapine was an important part of interaction between polities. Tribal societies conducted raids against each other, both within and outside an ethnolinguistic group. Raiding was a primary factor in relations between states and tribal polities adjacent to them. Warfare between some states was conducted using raiding techniques, and for motives similar to other Indo-European societies. General patterns of Indo-European raiding include attacks for status, for revenge, for political power, and for wealth. The common heritage of raiding survived from Proto-Indo-European times, and helps explain the presence of raiding in all these societies. CSAS

THEORY AND PRACTICE IN MEDICAL ANTHROPOLOGY (Sunday morning, 8:30-10:30)

Theory and practice are two very loaded and often conflated terms in current anthropological discourse. Practice is used in at least the following ways, to refer to: any human action or undertaking; a privileging of ordinary human action/practice over discourse about practice, whether by the people themselves or by anthropologists (Bourdieu 1977), in order to overcome the institutional and objectifying biases of Western categories (Lambeck 1993); the political nature of such practice often called praxis by Marxists (Ortner 1984); the practice of medicine, of anthropology, or other professional disciplines. While some authors imply a more dialectical relationship between the concepts, others seem to represent the concepts as separate, yet embedded constructs. We see theory and practice within medical anthropology more broadly. Theory can be thought of as an appropriate and economical way of explaining the interconnectedness of the person to the therapist and community within the context of health and healing. Practice refers to the applications of anthropological ideas to specific situations or ethnographic accounts of sickness and healing. We recognize that practice generates theory and theory reflects practice. The examination of practice, and the ways theory is generated by it, is of particular help in finding bridging approaches for both medical practitioners and those who study health and healing practices. This panel of both clinician and non-clinician anthropologists will present a range of cases and methods that demonstrate the interconnectedness of theory and practice. CSAS

ART AND ARTIFACT (Sunday morning 10:30-noon)

Craft productions and the visual arts provide an extraordinary lasting visual record of symbolic representations and aesthetic traditions. A fascination with many of these has influenced modern artistic expression in some very well known instances, such as the impact of primitive (i.e., mainly African) art on European Cubist painting of the early 20th century. The "primitive" sought by the Cubists from a realm beyond their own cultural context is one end of a continuum which could be demonstrated at the other end by artistic traditions tightly linked to a given artist's ethnic self-identity. Influences on individual artists under less encapsulated circumstances are far less clear, although often tantalizingly evident. Prehistory as inspiration for the modern in particular takes numerous forms, many of them consciously part of the creative process for a given artist. This session will explore three settings wherein artists have incorporated expressions from a previous time period into contemporary visual art. The first examines the use of ancient iconography from their own ethnic traditions in paintings by several modern indigenous artists of the Northeastern Woodlands. The second paper will discuss the inspiration for a unique production designed for live theater which was based on the hypothesis that Paleolithic awareness of the existence of fossils had an impact on the development of visual representation. The final presentation will detail the process whereby art students executed works in various media specifically motivated by a particular artifact from natural science museum anthropology collections. CSAS
 
 

ABRAHAMSON, RoseAnn (U Chicago) NAGPRA AND THE INTERNATIONAL CONTEXT This paper examines the particular issues of Native Americans living outside the borders of the United States, specifically in Canada. Blackfeet people, for example, live in Montana and also across the border, in Alberta. The Blood people of Alberta, part of the Blackfoot Confederacy, have lost various items to museums around this country. As they are not covered by US law, human remains, sacred items and items of cultural patrimony belonging to the Blood are not eligible for repatriation directly to the Blood people. The cooperation of the Blackfeet Tribe of Montana has, however, made repatriation possible for the Blood people. Other Native Americans in Canada and in Mexico might look to the Blackfeet as one model of international repatriation. Consortia, more generally, have become the answer to many of the issues of those Native Americans who do not qualify for repatriation for reasons of national boundaries or federal recognition. CSAS/ARS

ACHESON, Julianna (Indiana U) SILENCE AND A FEW FLYING EGGS: SLOVAK REACTION TO THE "DIVORCE OF CZECHOSLOVAKIA This paper focuses on how silence was used by individuals in Slovakia as an expression of passive resistance to the break-up of Czechoslovakia. The split of this ninety year union shocked the world and has been attributed to a Slovak nationalist agenda, and understood in the media to represent the desires of the majority of Slovak citizens. However, with a few exceptions, individuals I interviewed in both urban and rural Slovakia were shocked by the outcome of what they saw as a decision made by two politicians with personal aims and who lacked the ability to negotiate. A few Slovaks campaigned for an independent Slovakia in the capital city of Bratislava. Part of this campaign included tossing eggs at President Vaclav Havel, an act that has also been misconstrued by the media. However, the vast majority of Slovaks took no action before, during, or after the break-up of the Czechoslovak Federation. Reasons for this silence and passivity are discussed and analyzed. CSAS

ADACHI, Nobuko (Illinois State U) WHY DO THE KUBO JAPANESE-BRAZILIAN WOMEN SPEAK MORE "DISCOURTEOUSLY" THAN THEIR MEN?: GENDER ROLES AND WOMEN'S SPEECH Kubo Commune, where about ninety people live, work, and eat together in the Brazilian forest, was established by Japanese immigrants early this century. Since its foundation, Kubo has been based on the philosophy of Nôhon-shugi, which teaches that the understanding of---and living with nature, can be achieved through farming. This philosophy was brought by these Japanese immigrants as they established the commune. This Nôhon-shugi philosophy is based on the primary agricultural principle of the Tokugawa government (1603-1868) which adopted ancient Japanese mythology to make farm work more appealing to the peasantry: The reason for this was that the economic resources of the government was totally dependent on farm products. Tadashi Kubo, the founder of the commune, in the twentieth century, used the Takugawa's farming principle to encourage members to stay on the commune. At the same time, Tadashi fostered cultural activities, such as dance and music, to complement the agricultural philosophy; these outlooks and activities differentiate the Kubo commune from other surrounding Japanese-Brazilian communities. By practicing the arts everyday, the Kubo people inforce their identity and personal development through farming and becoming in tune with nature. The language of communication among the Kubo people is still solely Japanese. However, while it is commonly recognized that the speech style of women in Japan is different from that of men (being marked in numerous ways for politeness and gender), in Kubo things are not so simple. Here, the speech style of men is almost the same as the speech style of men in Japan, but ironically, Kubo's women's speech is very, rough, impolite, and masculine. I suggest, based on eighteen months of fieldwork in the Kubo commune, that women use language in an attempt to create solidarity based on this natural Nôhon-shugi philosophy. Therefore, they speak in the most simple and direct speech style (which does not consist of honorific or polite verb forms). I argue that there is also an historical basis for why Kubo women have rejected these registers of speech. During the Meiji era (1868-1912) many social changes took place in Japan. Japanese women (even those of the farming communities) were taught the women's speech style of the old Samurai class in the newly compulsory schools. This style of speech caused great feminine or polite (a trait that is still found in Japan today). By choosing to speak in plain or masculine forms, the Kubo women in Brazil have rejected this linguistic subordination to males found in Japan since the late nineteenth century. This study suggests that some reconsiderations of the current major sociolinguistic theories of the relationships between women's language and politeness is necessary. CSAS

AGNEW, Steven (Independent Scholar) PALAIOKASTRO: A MYCENAEAN CITADEL ON AN INLAND TRADE ROUTE This paper presents data obtained during a detailed re-study of Palaiokastro (ancient Bouphagion) located in the mountainous region of Arcadia, Greece, and an archaeological survey of its immidiate surroundings in the summer of 1992. Studies on trade, transportation, and communication during the Mycenaean era are also brought together to construct a model of interaction between Palaiokastro and other known sites. Data from the survey indicate that there was little exploitation of the landscape surrounding the settlement during this time period. Therefore the site was likely dependent upon outside sources for sustenance. On the basis of this survey, it is theorized that there was no significant level of craft production at the site. It is proposed that the Mycenaean site of Palaiokastro was intentionally located on the Alpheios River to protect the inland trade routes from Elis (Pylos) to the interior of the Peloponnese. CSAS

ALLEN, Susan L. (Kansas State U) APPLYING ANTHROPOLOGY THROUGH THE MEDIA In his 1996 book Understanding Development, John Rapley said that the challenges sustainability pose to development theory are likely surmountable. But, he said, "we can only hope that to political leaders and ordinary people it will prove the same." This paper suggests an alternative to depending on traditional journalism for presenting the kind of information "political leaders and ordinary people" need in order to make sustainable development possible. And it explores some of the ideas behind the new field of media anthropology. A basic tenant of media anthropology is that democratic approaches to the development and functioning of societies demand that we learn to use the media for a critical, perspective-building kind of "public education." We need to bring as many people as possible into the development picture; and one way we can bring them in is by creating a professional subfield combining journalism and anthropology that exists to help inform them. CSAS

ANGELBECK, William O. (U Missouri) MEDITATION IN ALTERNATIVE RELIGIONS: EXERCISING THE ADAPTIVE FACULTY OF ATTENTION Alternative religions often practice a form of meditative technique. The goal of this essay is to analyze the process of meditation and its effects on the individual, physiologically and psychologically. The practice of meditation is modeled in comparison to the normal cognitive process of an organism adapting to changes in the immediate environment. Meditation is a practice that exercises the focus of attention, which is the locus of consciousness and the primary adaptive mechanism. By focusing the attention through concentrative practices, one attempts to avoid the distractions of past memories or future imaginings, temporarily relieving psychological anxieties and associated physiological tensions. The practice of meditation thus serves as a rite of passage that facilitates the transition from moment to moment, by maintaining awarreness of the thought process and its tendency for habitual reactions to environmental stimuli. Subsequently, these meditative practices affect how the individual interacts within the religious or spiritual group, and within wider society overall. Thus, in addition to providing a social network of relationships, some alternative religions guide individuals in meditative practices that relieve anxieties and tensions as well as develop a focus of attention applicable to various activities. A strengthening of awareness and concentration contributes to a calm mental state in which an individual can optimally adapt to situations in the physical or social environment. Cognition has always been the primary mechanism of adaptation; meditation is simply an exercise of that facility. ARS

ARDEN, John (U Chicago) PROPERTY: CULTURAL, INTELLECTUAL, INDIVIDUAL American property law focuses on PRIVATE property. Communal properties are problematic in the American legal system. NAGPRA (Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act) is a 1990 US statute which depends on the history of American law for interpretation. Most repatriation issues and action, however, relate to communal property. Of particular concern are issues of communal intellectual property, which this paper will exemplify and explicate. CSAS/ARS

ARNDT. Grant P. (U Chicago) AUTOBIOGRAPHY, CONVERSION, AND CULTURAL CONSCIOUSNESS: THE INFLUENCE OF THE PEYOTE RELIGION ON PAUL RADIN'S PORTRAIT OF WINNEBAGO CULTURE In this paper I look at the awareness of culture displayed in the autobiographical accounts of Winnebago peyotists collected by Paul Radin. I pay particular attention to the impact of conversion to the peyote religion on the ways that Winnebago peyotists such as Sam Blowsnake understood and objectified their "traditional" culture. Arguing that religious conversion was not a process of acculturation, I see the Winnebago autobiographical narratives as emerging from a social context within which description of religious experience and cultural knowledge had complex and potentially contradictory effects on social relations. I point out that the interactional effects of cultural discourse for Blowsnake and the other Winnebago peyotists affected Paul Radin's collection and description of Winnebago culture in his many publications. Not only was it an important condition of possibility for his aquisition of otherwise secret ritual texts, but I also suggest that it may have influenced Radin's theory of the relationship between individuals and their cultural communities. My analysis is intended to aid in a more critical understanding of Radin's corpus of Winnebago texts. I also hope to demonstrate that if we treat Native American autobiographical texts collected by fieldworkers as the inscriptions of attempts to fashion indentities in discursive interactions, instead of dismissing them as inauthentic products of cross cultural ventriloquation, they become a rich source of insights into the way Native American peoples have understood themselves, their cultures, and their worlds. CSAS

ARNOLD, Nathalie (Indiana U) FINDING A TOWN FOR THE SHAMELESS: SWAHILI POETRY, RIDDLES, AND SONG IN ZANZIBARI POLITICAL DISCOURSE, 1995-1997 In 1995, Zanzibaris held their first multi-party elections since the 1964 Revolution, which was followed by thirty-two years of close government control of public speech. The two years following the hotly contested and violent 1995 elections have seen the creation of new ethnicities, and the polarization of political communities along lines that hearken back to pre-revolutionary poltical mythology, and are seen as 'reviving' a dangerous past. This paper illuminates the practical structure of political discourse in Zanzibar between 1995 and 1997, by noticing the elusive spaces in which people defy state policies which would silence them. Based on fourteen months of ethnographic fieldwork, the paper focusses on the use of song and poetry in political contests, viewing competence in various 'traditional' speech genres as a crucial means of displaying, and instantiating, 'modern' political identities and discourse in ways generally overlooked by political scientists who reduce Zanzibari 'politics' to matters of state policy and action, and by folklorists and linguistic anthropologists who relegate the use of Swahili speech genres to an apolitical realm of 'culture.' CSAS

BALICK, Brian Patrick (Beloit C) NATIONAL PARKS AS NATIONAL MUSEUMS: MUSEUM ETHNOGRAPHY IN DENALI NATIONAL PARK In this paper I construct a parallel between US National Parts and National Museums, with a particular focus on Denali National Park in Alaska. I explore how Denali is structured to resemble a museum in terms of preservation, collections and exhibitions, based on my experiences in the park over the course of two summers. Following a brief survey of the history of the National Park Service, I look at how the institution of the Park Service functions much like a museum to conserve the nation's resources and to educate the public. Then, taking the example of Denali, I demonstrate similarities between the park and a museum with respect to symbolism, the heirarchies that structure the relationship between individuals and institutions related to the park, the construction of authenticity, the use of corporate sponsorship and a pervasive sense of nationalism. I argue that an understanding of Denali National Park as a museum can provide us with insights into the ideologies that support and define American museums. CSAS

BALL, Cindy (Wichita State U) ACROMEGALY IN RECENT AND PREHISTORIC SKELETONS: A CASE STUDY Acromegaly is a pathological condition in adults that stems from tumors of the pituitary gland. This overstimulation of the pituitary results in several indicitive characteristics in the skeleton. Acromegaly is known to have been present in ancient Egyptian and Late Woodland Native American populations. We present a skeletal analysis of two possible cases of acromegaly. One is present in a prehistoric akeleton, and the other in a modern skeleton. CSAS

BATHURST, Laura (Berkeley) WHAT ARE YOU TALKING ABOUT?! RESPONSES TO JARGON AMONG FIRST-YEAR ANTHROPOLOGY GRADUATE STUDENTS Becoming a specialist normally involves learning a special vocabulary, a "jargon," and graduate school in anthropology is no exception. This paper will examine how students in the first year of the University of California, Berkeley's Ph.D. program talk about jargon in an effort to understand the impact of a perceived expectation to learn and use this "new language." Such expectations exert pressure on the students and affect their adaptation to their new environment. This analysis is interesting in what it has to say about power within the discipline of anthropology, particularly in the socialization of new generations of anthropologists. CSAS

BELL, Benjamin (Beloit C) SUBSISTENCE AND LITHIC CHANGE FROM BERINGIA TO THE AMERICAN STEPPE The "paleo indians", though increasingly well defined, remain enigmatic. Concrete proof of their migration has not been fully demonstrated. Were subsistence changes as abrupt as we would like to think? In a series of hypothetical arguments, I posit evidence that pachyderm species were gradually ignored in favor of bovids and other ungulates. To excite further inquiry, I propose a pair of lithin typological sequences which support a thesis of two distinct mighrations. CSAS

BELYAEVA-STANDEN, Yelena (St Louis U) LANGUAGE AND CULTURE INTERFACE: RUSSIAN-AMERICAN TALK The ethnography of communication has provided numerous examples of how language reflects cultural values and assumptions. In particular, communicative styles are radically different and are based on different values and assumptions that lie behind one's way of understanding the world. These differences are reflected in language, mostly in the vocabulary, and in speech, namely in the frequency of usage and preferences of choices of communicative strategies. This paper is based on my research on cross-cultural differences between Russian and American communicative styles and on cultural transfer in speech behaviors of Russian Speakers of English and American speakers of Russian. I will demonstrate that culture is not only behaviors, but also rules and values underlying these behaviors, and show how Russians and Americans communicate (or miscommunicate) across differences in life experience and style, upbringing and basic assumptions about the world. This paper focuses on five communicative situations, of particular social importance: offering food, giving and soliciting advice, complimenting, asking questions, requesting) and analyzes the communicative behavior of Russians and Americans in these speech events against a broader cultural context in order to reveal most clearly the differences in cultural scripts that stand behind them. In conclusion, I will make suggestions about ways and means of minimizing negtive cultural transfer in cross-cultural dialogues between Russians and Americans. CSAS

BENEFIEL, Angela and MOORE-JANSEN, Peer (Wichita State U) BIOLOGICAL PROFILE RECONSTRUCTION: A CASE STUDY IN FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY The documentation of human skeletal remains from archaeological contexts is essential to the study of the individual behind any associated cultural manifestations. In recent forensic investigations, biological profile reconstruction is critical to the eventual identification of potential victims and represents a unique application of biological anthropological research. C001 is a unique case of skeletal biological reconstruction, providing skeletal evidence of group affiliation, sex and stature. Analysis is undertaken using standard, new, and customized analytical techniques and detailed investigation of traumatic injuries. A complete profile and inquiry into manner of death is presented. CSAS

BENSON, Janet E (Kansas State U) NONMETROPOLITAN AREAS AND THE NEW IMMIGRATION: GARDEN CITY, KANSAS IN COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE The post-1965 immigration is usually described as localized and urban in character, heavily concentrated in six states (California, New York, Texas, Florida, New Jersey, Illinois) and a few major metropolitan areas (New York, Washington, D.D., Chicago, Houston, San Francisco, Los Angeles, Miami) (Portes and Rumbaut 1996:34-35). However, recent immigration has also shaped rural American society, both in subtle and dramatic ways. Types of immigrants found in the heartland include refugees and labor migrants, highly trained professionals and entrepreneurs, depending on the nature of local labor markets. This paper places Garden City, Kansas and its newcomer population in comparative perspective within a broad framework of societal change. Small communities in complex societies, no less than metropolitan centers, are impacted by immigration policies, industrial restructuring, and global economic and social linkages; however, the nature of the labor market and thelikelihood of immigrant participation varies. Population decline, not growth, is the commonest pattern for rural Kansas communities. As small towns turn to food processing and other types of rural industry, they are likely to increasse in cultural diversity. CSAS

BERKOWITZ, Jason (Centre) MASSAGE YOU/MASSAGE ME: CONSTRUCTION OF THE SELF IN THE MASSAGER/MASSAGEE RELATIONSHIP The false dichotomies of mind/body and culture/nature are ancient history to many anthropologists. Likewise, the former hegemony of 'mind' and 'culture' over 'body' and 'nature' now seems not only dated but almost overcompensated into an inverted paradigm where 'body' and 'nature' reign. The tension and on-going negotiations and interactions between these paradigms will be investigated in this paper through the case study of the massage phenomenon in our culture. A very corporal sense of self is demonstrated and constructed by both the massage practitioners and their clients. The cultural implications of this particular form of embodiment will be identified and explored. CSAS

BILLINGS, Dorothy K (Wichita State U) "CAN I HELP?" SLINGSHOT ANTHROPOLOGY FACES THE DEVELOPMENT GIANT Discussions of "development" within anthropology began with a 1940s "applied anthropology", which focused on bringing programs to "underdeveloped" peoples. Sol Tax and his students created "action anthropology" as a critique of applied (and theoretical) anthropology, pointing out that anthropologists who wer working for outside agencies were not working for the people whom we study and whose interests we are ethically bound to give priority. Today's anthropologists who work in formerly "tradition" settings are everywhere witness to "development" and must either remain silent as we often did about colonialism, or else take positions on today's very prominent public battle between nongovernmental conservationist groups and the forces of industry. This paper points to examples of anthropological action,and suggests that the anthropologist still does have some opportunities and obligations to give support to people facing the goliath of "development." Special attention is given to the peoples of Papua New Guinea and of Irian Jaya. CSAS

BLACKMAR, Jeannette M (U Kansas) PALEOINDIAN LAND USE PATTERNS ON THE SOUTHERN PLAINS This paper examines landscape usage on the southern Plains by early and late Paleoindians. Specifically, the Clovis, Folsom, and Cody complexes are compared in relation to settlement systems. This study addresses Paleoindian variability and attempts to correlate this variability with environmental changes during the Pleistocene-Holocene transition. CSAS

BRANDES, Steven (C of Wooster) A STUDY OF LITHIC PROJECTILE POINTS RECOVERED FROM A PREHISTORIC SITE IN NORTHERN OHIO This study examines the basic argument and problems associated with typologies. It asks the question: Are types inherent in the archaeological record or are they just heuristic constructs formed by the archaeologist? Projectile points discovered at a site in Northern Ohio were assembled into a morphological typology to help examine this argument. The cultural affiliations of this site were determined through the use of diagnostic style variation discovered in the typology. Finally, statistical analysis was used to examine some of the typological issues. CSAS

BROWN, Caroline (U Chicago and Tanana Chiefs Conference) CONTROL OF INFORMATION AND THE NATIVE AMERICAN GRAVES PROTECTION AND REPATRIATION ACT NAGPRA allows for the return of human remains and associated funerary items, sacred items, and items of cultural patrimony to Native American tribes from the Smithsonian and other federally funded museums throughout the country. A committee of seven members, chaired by Tim McKeown of the National Park Service and including both Indian and non-Indian members, determines policy and addresses issues associated with NAGPRA. As the committee recommends future amendments to the act, it will need to consider the control of information held in museums: information concerning collections and the process of collection; historical, cultural, and personal information associated with items held in museums; and information (notes, films, drawings, etc.) held independent of any collected items. Access to information has been a problem for some tribes, tribal control of information has been a problem for others. This paper establishes the importance of the control of information in NAGPRA, examining an example from Alaska, in order to establish the need for committee consideration of museum information of all types in regard to repatriation. CSAS

BUCHMAN, David (SUNY Stony Brook) THE PEDAGOGY OF PERFECTION: CONTEMPORARY RELIGIOUS EDUCATION OF THE SHADHILIYA/' ALAWIYA SUFI ORDER OF SANA'A, YEMEN The acquisition and transmission of religious knowledge are central means by which Muslims worldwide practice, comprehend, and interpret Islamic ideas and rituals. Indeed, among followers, teaching and learning about Islam are considered types of devotional rituals in themselves. Exploring the practice and effects of such pedagogy provides insight into the construction of group and individual Muslim world view and ethos. The anthropological study of Islam as a belief system remains nascent in investigating the method of such contemporary religious learning and interpretation. Before generalizations can be drawn, data on specific schools of religious learning and practice should be presented. In recognition of this lacuna, this paper explores four aspects of the informal teaching circles of the members of the Shadihiliya/' Alawiya Sufi order of Sana'a, Yemen: 1) the teacher and student relationship, 2) the type of religious texts employed and their interpretations, 3) the use of ritual practices in group and individual instruction, 4) the effect of teachings on world-views and ethos. Theoretical concerns follow the interpretive approach to the study of religions as initially expounded by Clifford Geertz, and more recently refined in Mark Woodward's portrait of Javanese Islamic religious belief and practice. ARS

BUCKNER, Margaret (Southwest Missouri State U) THE MIND'S EYE OR THE EYE'S MIND? EXPLORING CONCRETE AND ABSTRACT REFERENTS OF BODY PART TERMS IN ZANDE (CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC One of the ongoing discussions in linguistics and studies of human cognition is the promacy of concrete over abstract referents, especially with regard to the body. When terms have both concrete and abstract referents, it is generally assumed that the physical, concrete referent is the primary one, and that abstract uses are derived therefrom. Furthermore, when body part terms are used in contexts outside the body (be they concrete or abstract), it is generally assumed that the primary referent is the physical body part and that the term is then applied to other contexts. The Zande language (Central African Republic) offers evidence that questions these assumptions. Most body part terms, in addition to concrete referents, also have intangible, abstract referents. For example, the Zande word for "eye" refers not only to the blades of knives and spears, but also to something resembling "mind". Moreover, many body part terms are also used as prepositions. For example, the Zande word for "eye" can also be translated, in certain cases, as "in". Two kinds of markers distinguish the different uses of such terms: tones and the locative marker "yo". Analysis of these markers make it possible to suggest that, in the Zande language, the primary (unmarked) referent for body part terms and other terms referring to physical objects and places may be abstract rather than concrete. CSAS

BUENGER, Brent A (U Kansas) UNTITLED Information from published taphonomic research concerning bison disarticulation frequencies is compared with additional primary data from several recent bison mortality sites to aid in the assessment of patterns of skeletal disarticulation at the Hudson-Meng site (25SX115), a large (MNI = 600) early Holocene bison bonebed. Variation in the composition of articulated bison skeletal segments is compared with a combined data set of actualistic research derived from modern bison death sites. The comparison of naturally occurring skeletal disarticulation patterns and archaeologically recorded patterns of disarticulation at Hudson-Meng contribute to a better understanding of the formational history of the bonebed. Patterns of disarticulation at Hudson-Meng more closely resemble natural mortality as opposed to the results of human butchery and processing. CSAS

BUGGENHAGEN, Beth A (U Chicago) BODY INTO SOUL, SOUL INTO SPIRIT: SPIRITUAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP IN DA'IRA TOUBA CHICAGO How does a spiritual community constitute itself through travel? Da'ira Touba Chicago is a meeting places for the Mourides, a Senegalese Muslim Sufi tariqa (ar. path), in Chicago. These traveling disciples form part of a transnational community through which the Marabout, a spiritual leader in Senegal, circulates commodities. Disciples transform their individual commercial profit into cash gifts, or hadaya, for the Marabout. Today hadaya are collected by local da'iras offering disciples salvation in an uncertain moral terain. The connection that disciples make between cash gifts and salvation suggests that we have fundamentally misunderstood the movement of capital and the degree to which a religious spirit may serve as its driving force. In formulating a spiritual economy, Mouride disciples are entrepreneurs parlaying their experience of travel and trade into a chance for salvation to be "reabsorbed, body into soul, soul into Spirit, Spirit into the Divine" (Lings 1989), the heart of the Sufi path. Connecting Mouride economic practice to Mouride religious doctrine highlights the importance of a notion of culture that encapsulates the material and the moral. Following the Comaroffs who argue that global forces manifest themselves in the quotidian, I suggest that global capital restructuring can be examined through local practices of exchange. Focusing the analytical lens on localized practices of exchange reveals not that material conditions determine the lives of Mouride disciples, but rather that disciples devise a meaningful symbolic scheme of their own that guides their economic practices. Following Apter (1992) I argue that the Mouride soteriology shapes local processes of production and exchange not in a strictly determinant sense, but dialectically through conditions of global capital restructuring. Further Mouride disciples revise their soteriology to index the power that makes cash gifts efficacious and the authority that frees their cash gifts from moral peril. ARS

CALLEJA, Judith (Central Michigan U) ANCIENT ICONOGRAPHY IN MODERN OJIBWA ART The art of indigenous peoples has attracted increasing attention in recent years. Previously relegatred almost exclusively to natural history collections, so-called "ethnic art" is not frequently exhibited in art museums although seldom with the attention or space devoted to other artistic traditions. The work of contemporary Native American and indigenous Canadian artists is also showing up increasingly in gallery settings, generally labeled "native" although many utilize non-traditional media such as acrylic painting in addition to block prints or carvings. A fine line is walked between restriction or limitation of artistic expression to "native" motifs and advantages of a public hungry for the exotic. Many of these works seem informed by ancient iconography translated into much of the visual conventions of westernized modern art. One motif prominent in the work of several traditions is the use of so-called x-ray motifs which simultaneously depict exterior bodies and their interior critical organs or skeletons. This approach is common in Australian and North American Northwest coast prehistoric art. It also appears in some of the traditions of the Eastern Woodlands cultures. The use of this device by several Ojibwa artists is illustrated and discussed. CSAS

CAMPBELL, Brian C (Truman State U) SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTION AND AN ENDANGERED ENVIRONMENT: THE EFFECTS OF COLONIZATION IN BOLIVIA'S AMAZON The Amazon region of Bolivia has experienced a significant influx of emigrants during the 20th century, most of them from the Andean sector of western Bolivia. The Bolivian government promoted the "colonizacion" for a variety of stated reasons, ranging from the alleviation of demographic pressure in the urban highlands to the integration of remote national territory. While the colonization succeeded in spreading out the population, there were unforseen consequences. My research was conducted to study these effects in the summer of 1997 in the colony of San Julian, in the Amazon region. Because the majority migrated from the highlands, they were unfamilar with the environmental conditions and appropriate agricultural methods of the Amazon. The immediate consequence was the destruction of surrounding aread in order to create a more familiar atmosphere, which generated repercussions of its own, ranging from health problems to economic ones. Also, instead of utilizing natural methods to control insects and predators, as had been done locally for centuries, insecticides, pesticides and herbicides were introduced to the newcomers by foreign corporations. Due to the denseness of the jungle, the Spaniards had never attempted to integrate the inhabitants of this area into the new Spanish-Bolivian society. The introduction of foreign ethnic groups with a much longer history of Spanish contact created a previously unexperienced social situation. A form of social stratification emerged following the sudden ethnic mixing in which the original inhabitants became the lowest class due to their lack of familiarity with the Spanish language and customs. CSAS

CHEN, Gang (Ohio State U) DEATH RITUAL AND CHANGING ATTITUDES TOWARD ANCESTORS IN A CHINESE VILLAGE This paper will examine both practice and belief regarding death and ancestors in a village in southwestern China. The fieldwork data will show that ritual practice in this modern Communist village seemingly perpetuates the traditional Chinese cosmology of heaven, earth, underworld gods, ghosts and ancestors. Many informants I interviewed, however, do not believe in the existence of a world for the dead or the authority of the ancestors. They participate in the ritual because it is customary and a way to remember the dead. Do the villagers still worship their ancestors? I believe that ancestor worship is now giving way to ancestor commemoration. The paper will argue that this change stems from the Communist ideology the state has instilled in rural peasants, together with the inability of the elders to leave land and other important resources to their descendants, and the current lack of lineage ceremonies. ARS

CHOBY, Alex (U Kansas) DISARMING TRAUMATIC MEMORY: A PRACTICAL THEORETICAL APPLICATION Practical application of theory about the nature of memory and its relationship to health suggest possible "treatments" for victims of violence. Interviews with Vietnamese refugees reveal that violence experienced and witnessed lives in victim's bodies as memory--images, smells, sounds, locations, etc. Aspects of traumatic experience become icons of that experience, and recreate not only images of the event, but also physiological processes originally experienced. These narrators recount living paralysis, difficulty breathing, gastro-intestinal disturbance, and feelings of helplessness, fear and anger in particular contexts which recreate the original event. In some instances, the way symptoms hare relived changes as experiences are evaluated in a moral world; eventually, for some, icons lose their ability to discharge physiological correlates of memory so images can be recalled without corresponding symptoms. Using Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome model and semiotic theory to provide a basis for understanding how violence is experienced physiologically and reformulated cognitively, I will investigate possible therapies which may neutralize these icons' ability to re-create negative physiological reactions. Therapies include recontexting symbols, narrative construction, and community-wide rituals. These "therapies" allow victims to formulate new associations for powerful negative icons, attribute meaning to experiences which have shattered world-view, and rebuild trust. CSAS

CHOLLETT, Donna L (U Minnesota-Morris) ASSERTING THE SIGNIFICANCE OF LOCAL SPACE: A STRUGGLE FOR COMMUNITY SURVIVAL IN PURUARAN, MEXICO Almost a decade after restructuring the Mexican sugar industry, sugar-producing regions are experiencing variegated consequences, ranging from renewed economic viability to financial insolvency. Some mill owners have strategically chosen to close down less efficient mills, disregarding the social and economic impact on traditional sugar-producing communities. This paper examines one such community, where closure of the primary source of employment directly affected thousands of cane growers and mill workers, as well as 36,000 inhabitants of the region. Since the closing, the community has suffered heightened rates of out-migration, business failures, school dropouts, malnutrition, and violence. Drawing on their shared, historical consciousness, residents mobilized across class and occupational lines to confront their marginalization and the crisis of reproduction affecting family and community forms of survival. As active agents sharing an ideology of local cultural space, some residents illegally took over the mill, demanding its expropriation for the community good. Others organized to legally establish new microenterprises as alternative sources of employment. Both these strategies brought Puruarán residents into direct conflict with the mill owner and the government. I argue that this transformation in the global-local nexus of relations among entrepreneurs, workers, and cane producers obliges us to examine the uneven nature of hegemony and power as it is constituted in local communities. This case study provides insights into the heterogeneity of local strategies for alternative forms of reproduction and community survival as residents confront the new logic of globalization in local space. CSAS

COLLINS, Dorothy (U Kansas) A COMPARISON OF HOME SCHOOLING WITH PUBLIC SCHOOLING In the mid 19th century public schools in America developed from the ideology that education was imperative to instill the values of liberty, equality, and the public good. By the end of the 19th century, rapid population growth, technological, and social changes had transformed the goal of public schools from teaching a civic morality to everyone, to teaching different subject matter to a varied group of people. In the 1970s, parents across the nation began to question the value of public education, believing they could teach children better at home and, by the end of 1996, 1.23 million childeren were home schooled in the United States. This paper examines and compares twenty-five families who home-school with the public schools the children would have attended. The study area consisted of Johnson, Leavenworth, and Wyandotte Counties in Northeastern Kansas. The historical changes in the educational mission of public schools and other cultural factors that gave rise to growth in home schooling are discussed. This paper compares current rationales, curriculum, and method and considers the implication of home schooling for participating children. CSAS

COOK, Betty E (U Kansas) THE PROBLEMATIC PERSON: A COMPARATIVE DISCUSSION OF THE PERSON IN CONCEPTION, GESTATION, BIRTH AND ABORTION IN AFRICA AND AMERICA Beginning with ancient scholars, the concept of the person in cenception, gestation, childbirth and abortion has traditionally rested on the separation of this concept from that of the self. The self is defined by Marcel Mauss, Brian Morris, Francis Hsu and others as containing the personality, while the person as concept connotes social relationships and moral aspects of those relations. While some authors argue that personhood as a moral construct is a western invention, this paper will argue that each culture has its own concepts of the person. This paper further discusses that the person is diverse, even though it may seem lost in statistical discussions through perinatal mortality rates or "fetal wastage". Using various African concepts of the person for illustration, the universal aspects are revealed through theories of conception and abortion practices. The diversity in beliefs is attributed to differences in the health setting. Using America for comparison, issues of reproductive technology and current legal and popular dialogue about abortion are ussed to illustrate the differences in health setting as illustrated by the debates on population and discussions concerning reproductive services and their delivery in Africa. The author concludes that America's struggle with reproductive policy, and Africa's struggle with population policy reflect their position in the demographic transition and the different types of reproductive technology in use in each continent. The problems that arise from this difference are further discussed. CSAS

CORAZZO, Nina; FREY, Cheryl; MULLINS, Lanette; POWELL, Kimberly; RICHARDS, Sabrina; WEITBROCK, Amber (Valparaiso) HOARDING AND DISPLAY: VALPARAISO UNIVERSITY DORM ROOMS A SITE OF THE INSTRIPTION OF VISUAL CULTURE AND BEYOND! This study investigates students' rooms with an eye to the deposits of visual culture and other artifacts (functional, edible, frivolous, and forbidden). We are particularly interested in how rooms are marked by one's gender, religion, and ethnic origins. A questionnaire and interviews supplement our data collection. We compare and contrast our findings of what people secret in their rooms, why, and what it reveals about them. CSAS

CRAIG, Ruth H. (U Chicago) INTEGRITY AND SUBMISSION: A LOOK AT BALKAN WOMEN IN ANTHROPOLOGY Anthropology of recent years has taken a profound interest in the way which cultures and the anthropologists who study them conceive of gender. Many cultural studies once seen as persuasive analysis of human identity have been re-evaluated because of a gender-specific approach. Anthropologists have often encountered situations in which societal gender roles prohibit or curtail interaction between one gender and an anthropologist of another gender, or have strict guidelines for the communication between genders within the society itself. These issues are quite pertinent in the Balkans, an area almost obsessively characterized as patriarchal and male-dominated, since anthropology has often sidestepped the issue of gender in the Balkans. Whether this is due to the lack of detailed ethnography of the gender roles, specifically of women and womens roles and/or to a complex system of stereotype and Orientalism combined with violence and media that has drawn attention from the analysis of gendered identity, needs to be ascertained. While the role of the patriarchal society; particularly entrenched in analogy to violence and tradition, has been somewhat explored, women have remained metaphorically veiled from anthropological study; their only representation often relegated through male-dominated discourse. The tactics of anthropological texts on the Balkans in some ways only serve to reinforce generated stereotypes of patriarchy and female submission. Do these texts and studies represent the true face of Balkan society or should they be viewed only as the primary steps to representing Balkan society? CSAS

CROFF, Raina L. (Beloit C) SPACE, CULTURE AND CONTEXT: THE OTHER WAY OF SEEING OURSELVES In this paper I explore how views of Others represented in museum exhibits work toward forming cultural identities. Based on my study of the recent exhibit "Melanesian Images" at the Beloit College Logan Museum of Anthropology and the Africa exhibit at the Chicago Field Museum, I analyze how exhibit design, including the selection and location of objects, shapes viewers' perceptions of the Others on display. I investigate questions such as: What gets lost or preserved in museum translations of culture? How do objectives behind an exhibit manifest themselves in the details of display? How might exhibits of Others differ from exhibits of/by the Self. I argue that, despite the emphasis on an often exotic Other, museum exhibits really tell us about ourselves. CSAS

CRUMP, Rebecca and EVANS, Andrea (Grinnell C) REPLICATION OF BONE FLUTES AND WHISTLES This study attempts to replicate primitive bone whistles and flutes using domestic turkey and chicken femurs. Our goal is to determine whether bone tubes could have been used as instruments and the attributes needed for them to produce pure, melodic tones. Welooked at artifacts found in central California and South America. Stone tools were used in order to replicate the artifacts and the methods most accurately. We used chert for grooving and drilling and a sandstone mano for sanding. Our method was to "groove and snap," hollow out the bones, and drill holes. This study demonstrates that there are several alternative methods to making these instruments. CSAS

DAHL, Erik (Centre) LISTENING TO ST. JOHN'S WORT: MAINSTREAMING THE COUNTERCULTURE OF DECAFFINEATED DEPRESSION Within the last year, the flowering herb known as St. John's Wort (*Hypericum perforatum*) has become a household item in some segments of our society. Reputed by folk herbalists and believers to support "feelings of well-being" apparently by raising serotonin levels, the herb has been a mainstream option in Western Europe, especially Germany, for years, and is lauded by supporters as a "natural," over- the-counter alternative to the anti-depressant Prozac, without any of that drug's negative side-effects. This paper explores the current St. John's Wort phenomenon in the US from several perspectives, including field observations among and semi-structured interviews with the St. John's Wort folk group. CSAS

D"ANDREA, Anthony (U Chicago) SELF AND REFLEXIVITY IN POST-TRADITIONAL RELIGIOSITIES: THE CASE OF A NEW AGE CHRISTIANITY This paper studies the impact of a post-traditional culture upon the religious field, and specifically upon Christianity. It analyzes how processes such as reflexivity and psychologization shape new forms of religiosity within the West and between urban upper and middle-classes. The most evident case of the emergence of post-traditional religiosities lies in the New Age Movement (NAM). This paper seeks to contextualize it and traces its history, relating NAM to counterculture and Romanticism. Therefore, the post-traditional relates to the "new-ageization" of traditional religions, conferring upon these subjectivist and reflexivist tones. Empirically, the paper shows how post-traditional tendencies resemantize Christianity through the case of Paulo Coelho, a global best-selling writer. A self-proclaimed Catholic, Coelho works with a Christian imaginary, but within existentialist and reflexivist patterns. The study points for the growth of this kind of reflexive mysticism within the above mentioned social strata. ARS

DAVIS-STEPHENS, Linda E (Colby Community C) CHEYENNE ACTION ARCHEOLOGY: STEPS TO ECOLOGICAL LAWS OF THE TENTH MILLENIUM This paper tells about the ecological and cultural connections of making and enforcing laws in the interior grasslands of North America as a step to the experience of ecological laws existent since the biome changed from the boreal forest regions to grasses. This interdisciplinary approach crosses fields of law, ecology, ethnology, and archeology. The scientific knowledge fro this work has been applied in doing action anthropology with the Southern Cheyenne, TSISTSISTAS ceremonial leaders, in the United States since 1969. Principles learned in Cheyenne action anthropology have been used in doing Plains historical geography field trips with rural community colleges through Colby Community College in the 1990s. The results of teaching about Cheyenne ecological laws by using the archeology of human settlement patterns in the High Plains are what has become Cheyenne action archeology. Since the Holocene Epoch hunting tradition is still alive in TSISTSISTAS ceremonialism these teachings have been in practice for over ten millenia. CSAS

DeFORD, Carole (Cranbrook Institute of Science) ART AND ARTIFACT Artists make use of a variety of motivations to form the content of their work. The process of deriving their personal expression from one or more possible motivations involves the ability to focus. A unique exercise in such focus has been conducted for the past three years in a collaboration of the Center for Creative Studies in Detroit, Michigan and the Cranbrook Institute of Science in Bloomfield Hills, a Detroit suburb. With guidance from Carole DeFord, the Collections Manager at Cranbrook, the students each selected an artifact from the Anthropology Collections which captured their interest for whatever reason. Researching the object's identity and usage in its original culture stimulated the process of conceptualizing each of the resulting works of art. Under the tutelage of Center for Creative Studies Fiber instructor Susan Aaron-Taylor, the pieces were executed in a medium selected by each individual student. Their thought process regarding the creative motivation was then described in short accompanying graphics. This explanation was then presented with the artifact and work of art in an exhibition of art and science. CSAS

DeSILVA, Deema (Wichita State U) INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION POWER AND ITS ROLE IN INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS The importance of understanding customs, etiquette, business behavior and practices along with a country's sociopolitical change are a sine qua non to successful international business operations. The global marketplace is afloat with many languages that mirror cultural nuances salient to successful communications, negotiations and consensus necessary for mutual gains in profit and productivity. The myriad of languages, dialects, diverse ethnic groups, cultures and customs distinctly different from each other requires the international business person to cross communications barriers to effectively conduct business in the global arena. Sensitivity, cultural literacy, open dialogue are skills that help in fostering international trade. The role and function of intercultural communication power (ICP) is explored in this paper to acquaint anthropologists with the efforts of international traders to acquire intercultural communication skills, and to make cultural accommodations for cooperative effort and teamwork amidts cultural diversity to gain competetive advantage when conducting international business. The role of international traders in sustainable development in the 21st century provides the context for this discussion. CSAS

DEUTSCH, Stephanie (Beloit C) THE ART OF SPACE: AN ETHNOGRAPHIC APPROACH TO MODERN AMERICAN ART MUSEUMS In this paper I explore how tensions between architecture and art have shaped the definition of both art and museums in contemporary American society. Based on research in two modern art museums (the MOMA and the Guggenheim), I look at transformations in the relationship between exterior representations, interior spaces and the nature of the art itself. I argue that development of art museum architecture over the last 75 years has changed conventional notions of both art and architecture, prompting a radical shift in contemporary art evidenced by the growth of art forms such as non-permanent installations and large, unwieldy pieces unsuited for exhibit in conventional museum spaces. These changes in both museum architecture and art have moved toward the same end: recognition of the intimate connection between museums and the art they house, making clearer how museums shape the social construction of art and how art can shape the cultural meaning of the museum. My paper broadens our understanding of art as social process and museums as sites that not only preserve the past but shape our vision of the future. CSAS

DREW, Elaine (U Kansas) THEORIES AND PRACTICE OF ACUPUNCTURE In the United States today, acupuncture is gaining wider acceptance among practitioners, patients, and even the political bureaucracy of the Western medical establishment. In a recent article published in the New York Times (11/6/97), a 12-member panel convened by various agencies of the NIH reported that acupuncture was efficacious for certain medical conditions, especially those involving nausea and pain. This announcement, when viewed as part of a larger sociocultural milieu, serves as evidence for the diminishing schism between Western establishment medicine, a.k.a. biomedicine, and the "alternative" medical practice of acupuncture. Today acupuncture is licensed in 31 states, and covered by a growing number of insurance companies. A case study of acupuncture, while presenting only one small segment of the pluralistic medical setting in the US, can serve as an example of how alternative medical therapies articulate with the dominant biomedical establishment. This presentation examines the relationship between theories and practice of acupuncture within the contemporary political/economic context of medicine in the US I will also discuss how this ethnographic information might be examined through the lens of anthropological theory. CSAS

DUBISCH, Jill (Northern Arizona U) WWW.RELIGION.ORG: THE ANTHROPOLOGY OF RELIGION AND THE WORLD WIDE WEB When the mass suicides of members of the Heaven's Gate sect made headlines in March, 1997, much was made of the fact that the group had a web site. In fact, however, Heaven's Gate was by no means unusual in this respect, as the World Wide Web contains numerous sites for religious groups, ranging from mainstream religions, to Wiccans, to the Church of Euthanasia, to the motorcycle pilgrims known as Hell's Buddhas. This paper explores some of the different kinds of web sites pertaining to religion and the ideas and information they offer, and addresses some of the problems posed by our ambivalence toward the mixing of religion and technology. It concludes with some suggestions regarding the opportunities and challenges facing the anthropology of religion on the World Wide Web. ARS

DURRENBERGER, E. Paul (Pennsylvania State U) MERITOCRATIC INDIVIDUALISM AMONG MIDDLE AND WORKING CLASS UNION MEMBERS Katherine Newman details a middle class ideology of meritocratic individualism that works against middle class individuals who are donwardly mobile because they consistently believe that they deserve what they get--good or bad--because of something about themselves--their merit. She contrasts this to a working class ideology based on the power of larger structures rather than individual merit in determining indiviual life-courses. Thus when working class people are 'downsized' they blame the system, not themselves. Jules Henry documented the importance of such systems of grading and Jean Lave has discussed the historic function of meritocracies as replacements for aristocracies. I translated the dimensions that Newman identified as central to this complex into a set of questions which I asked attornerys (as representatives of the middle class who might be expected to hold to meritocratic ideologies], paralegals (with some professional training), and staff workers (who might be expected to hold to a distinct working class ideology) who are all members of the same union bargaining unit. Here I report on the similarities and differences I found in these three groups. CSAS

EASLEY, Amon (Centre) THE HARLEY DAVIDSON STURGIS RALLY: THE PURSUIT OF INDIAN-NESS IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE CONTEMPORARY CULTURE-HERO/ANTI-HERO Annually, thousands of Harley Davidson bikers, the revered and feared 'badboys' of our culture for years, meet for a rally in Sturgis, South Dakota. At the rally, there are institutionalized events, invented traditions, and spontaneous revitalizations that often share a constructed 'Indian-ness' in representation as well as apparent motivation. This paper is a field case study of the rally, focusing on the evidences of 'Indian-ness' not only in the rally scene itself but also in the year-round trappings and mystique of the Harley Davidson crowd . Documentation and possible explanations of the phenomenon will be presented. CSAS

EGUCHI, Atsuko (Wichita State U) ANALYSIS OF C0066, THE LOBOTOMY SKULL: AN EXAMINATION OF PSYCHOSURGICAL PROCEDURES C0066 is a specimen skull to the Moore-Jansen skeletal collection at the Department of Anthropology at Wichita State University, Wichita, KS. The skull is characterized by evidence of the frontal portion of the cranium along the coronal suture. It is suggested that the individual represented by the remains of C0066 experienced a unique psychosurgical procedure. Historically, such procedures were performed on patients who were believed to be mentally impaired. Lobotomies were performed on patients who were suspected to suffer from obsessive tension, involutional depression, schizophrenia, and other conditions. It was commonly thought that without psychosurgery, people suffering from these conditions would turn increasingly violent, psychotic and deranged, eventually posing a threat to themselves and to the rest of society. At present, it is recognized that psychosurgical procedures often did more harm than good. Side effects commonly resulted in more severe problems than the condition for which surgery was done. The study of C0066 examines the nature of the surgery performed from skeletal evidence and assesses the effects of the surgery as evidenced by direct observation of the remains. CSAS

ERICKSON, Ken C (U Missouri-Kansas City) "I JUST PUT MY BOYFRIEND IN THE TRUNK": DOING GENDER IN PACKINGHOUSE TOWNS "Vietnamese culture is patriarchal," or said Vietnamese (and American) men during refugee resettlement to the US in the 1980s. The experience of newcomers and established residents on the High Plains was markedly different. This paper maps the performance of gender across some of the multilingual High Plains packingtown landscape. Conflict and change in the performance of manhood and womanhood (and sometimes other-hood) are explored in the region's packing industry. The connection is not just between gender performance and work, but between gender performance and a particular kind of work: wage labor in large-scale animal slaughter. The packing plant is what Marc Augé (1995) and others call a "place that is no place," invisible in many ways to American or even Kansas experience. Don Stull (1994) notes that within it, ethnic boundaries may be erased. In the packinghouse, gender performance in general and women's power in particular become rewritten. The implications of gender performance in the packing towns on corporate industrial power is discussed. CSAS

FARRIS, Catherine S (U Northern Iowa) RETHINKING LANGUAGE, GENDER, AND POWER: CHINESE PRESCHOOL GIRLS IN TAIWAN DISCURSIVELY CONSTRUCT ASSERTIVE SUBJECTIVITIES Are girls less assertive than are boys? That is, do they display/perform less assertive behaviors, verbal and non-verbal, which is assumed to be an expression of an underlying disposition of assertiveness? In this paper, I take the position that assertiveness is a subject position which people claim, or do not claim, in the processes of social interaction. How does pacticipation in discursive activities socialize children into feminine and masculine subjectivities? We are concerned here with behaviors/dispositions which assert status? domination? authority? power? All of which have been linked more commonly to the masculine, both in Chinese societies and in western ones. A microethnography of interactions among girls and boys in a Mandarin Chinese speaking preschool in Taiwan suggests that some girls often are as assertive, or more so, than are some boys. This assertive behavior is context sensitive. Especially in informal settings among peers, some girls take assertive stances or leadership positions in relation to other girls and boys. Whereas, in more formal, teacher led interactions, often boys are more proactive. I argue that Chinese girls draw on their knowledge of asssertive subject positions which adult women in their lives occupy--especially the assertive position of mothers within the domestic domain--to practice and produce assertive subject positions in interactions with boys. Implications for how we might thik about gendered speech, power, and children's construction of subjectivities are discussed. This paper is drawn from videotapes and journal notes of naturally occurring conversations in a four year private preschool in Taiwan, R.O.C Brief excerpts from the videotapes will be shown. CSAS

FELIX, John (Independent Scholar) THE MAKING OF SOJOURNUS ANTIQUITUS: A MULTI-DISCIPLINARY UNION OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND THE ARTS In 1992 I began work on a thesis paper presently titled "The Impact of Fossils on the Development of Visual Representation." It has evolved through several drafts and has been well received by anthropologists, archaeologists, psychologists, neuropsychologists, and art historians around the world. The original theories set forth in this work, as well as a desire to communicate anthropological themes to a broader audience, soon inspired me to produce a sister work, "Sojournus Antiquitus: Paleolithic Journeys through Time, Mind, and Space"--a unique production designed for live theater. In "Sojournus Antiquitus," vocalists, instrumentalists, actors, dancers, and projected images take audiences on a multimedia excursion into the world of our ancient ancestors. My eclectic musical compositions are interwoven with intimate vignettes that tell stories about migration, hunting, youth, old age, and death; and explore the essence of being human. Other segments address the origins of art, sensitivity to nature, and religions experience--core elements initially explored in "The Impact of Fossils." All performances were sold out when produced in Michigan in May of 1996. CSAS

FOLSOM, Jennifer (Truman State U) INHUMAN PLUNDERERS, BEAUTIFUL MYSTERIOUS STRANGERS, AND DIRTY HEATHENS: THE GYPSIES OF EUROPE AND INDIANS OF NORTH AMERICA The Gypsies of Europe and the Indians of North America have both been subjected to sterotyping and discrimination. With the groups' first contacts with Europeans the racism began. Misconceptions and false images have defined Gypsy and Indian relations with Europeans and Euroamericans ever since. Early on, Europeans maliciously portrayed Gypsy and Indian origins, religions, and customs. It is not surprising that the ethnocentrism of Europeans was expressed in this manner; what is interesting is the similar manner in which the European views manifested themselves. Many of the stereotypical images created by the Europeans are nearly identical for the two groups. Everything from their origins to their appearance was analogously misrepresented and denigrated. In both cases these fabrications were accepted as truths by the general public and government officials. Europeans ussed these stereotypical precedents, not facts, as guidelines for their relations with both Indians and Gypsies. As a result, the stereotypes have been a long-lasting disruptive force in the cultures and lives of North American Indians and European Gypsies. CSAS

FORSTER, Nicole (Beloit C) REPRESENTATIONS ON A COMPUTER SCREEN: MUSEUMS AND THE INTERNET Computers and the Internet are changing the definition of museums. In this paper, I explore the phenomenon of museum web sites and look at the implications of this new medium for anthropological understandings of museums, communities and cultural identity. Based on materials gathered from more than a dozen different web sites, serving what museum professionals and computer technicians describe as both "virtual" and "real" museums, I analyze the layout and components of the sites, as well as their display techniques, including object labels and other explanatory text. I propose that "virtual" museums mimic "real" museums in order to construct identities among various communities of internet users. Like "real" museums, "virtual" museums use exhibits and objects to display identity, even in those instances when these exhibits do not "really" exist and the objects are the property of private owners or of "real" museums. I conclude with the question of the role of "virtual" museums in shaping cultural identities and how they shape and are shaped by the "virtual" expectations of museum audiences. CSAS

FORTE, Maximilian C. (U Adelaide) FROM POLITICS TO THEOLOGY TO SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION: TRINIDAD'S JAMA'AT AL MUSLIMEEN AND TIME-SPACE In 1990 the Caribbean saw an unprecedented armed assult on the state: the insurrection by the Jama'at al Muslimeen and the near overthrow of the government of Trinidad. Based on field research spanning three years, this paper traces the complex factors and processes leading to, and from, this insurrection as well as providing a description of the Muslimeen as a revitalization movement. I discuss the group's growth and transition from revival to rebellion, from community to movement, and from agitation based on singular issues to a broader politics of opposition around moral, legal and socio-economic issues. In the process I analyze how the Muslimeen explain, in heteronomous fashion, that their political views led them to Islam, which then helped to crystallize their perspectives on widespread social injustices and compelled them to militate for social transformation. The overall discussion will reveal the serious extent to which time and space are not only key analytical parameters, but are also central to the ideology and practice of the Muslimeen vs. the state. 1990 represents an "epitomizing event," not just for the entire society but for the Muslimeen who now seem fixed in "1990 mode": convinced of their power, righteousness and invincibility. 1990 represents the onset of a new order, an end to "forty years wandering in the desert" as the Muslimeen say. Time has both political and theological resonances that are explored in this paper: the time of the Golden Ace as a font of an alternative history to the national one; the time of deliverance (of "Exodus to the Promised Land"); and, the time of justice ("justice delayed is justice betrayed"). Space too has these resonances in addition to holding strategic value for the construction and expansion of the Muslimeen movement, especially where the state and the Muslimeen have fought over the latter's occupation and use of lands, forming a "state within a state" in the eyes of the authorities. While everything cannot boil down to time-space I argue that these prove to be central arenas and embodiments of thought and action in the struggle between the Muslimeen and the state. I tract this out in terms of events, the middle- and long-terms and their associated spatialities and with their politico-theological translations for the Muslimeen and their politico-juridical resonances in state policies. The nature and extent of the Muslimeen's efforts in "circumventing the centre" are described and evaluated, in the process shedding light on the movement and the corresponding spatio-temporal coordinates and meanings of its politics, theology and praxis. ARS

FORTE, Maximilian C. (U Adelaide) OF BLOOD, NAMES AND COLONIAL ANCESTORS: THE RACE OF INDIGENEITY IN THE CARIBBEAN Many studies of multiethnic Caribbean societies, such as Trinidad, have stressed creolization and the emergence of cosmopolitan national identities. The problem addressed here concerns the current revival and reconstruction of racial and ethnic categories presumed no longer existent, with a focus on the contemporary resurgence of Carib identification in Trinidad. Of what value is a racial identification? How and why are racial categories constructed, perpetuated and manipulated? In the Caribbean, what is the racial thinking behind a locally revived and globally orchestrated indigeneity? the paper traces the historical development of "Carib" as a political construction in a colonial racial hierarchy and as a resource in current ethnic labelling amongst those reclaiming a Caribbean Amerindian heritage. I focus on Trinidad's newly recreated Carib Community (with references also to Guyana and Dominica) and the leadership's stress on Carib being "in the blood," their lament of mixture, and their definition of Carib as "that Amerindian race." In the process, I examine the emergence of "Carib" as an ideological category developed and utilized first by colonizers and then their indigenous opponents (and later allies), its various permutations through time, until it became a privileged racial category: "not nigger, not coolie"...almost white. The value of indigenous identity in a late colonial setting is discussed in the context of colonial schemes of preservation of remnants of Carib groups in the face of "extinction" threatened by the "rising Black tide." I then discuss how "Carib" became absorbed into the creole nationalist firmament as a symbol of "ancient national history," authenticating new Caribbean states as nations with long, European-line histories. Moreover, I explain the manner in which race is privileged and perpetuated in the national ideology of "creolization" with its explicit narrative of races coming to the nation and its implication that races are real, vital and ongoing (i.e., a "Mother Trinidad and Tobago," with "children of different fathers"). I end the paper by discussing the Carib Community's reinterpretation and reformulation of ideas of "purity" as well as their development of labels adopted from a globalized aboriginality ("First Nations"). I thus outline how, as a resource, consciously wielded for both personal/emotional and political-economic value, "Carib" is deployed in a dualistic manner for local and global audiences: and indication of localness, specialness, survival and indigeneity. CSAS

FOULKES, Risha (University of Chicago) THE MASCULINIZATION OF FEMALE IDENTITY: USES AND ABUSES OF BOSNIAN VICTIMHOOD During the Balkan war, when rape camps in Bosnia-Herzegovina were mentioned at all, they were reported to be an "unprecedented" atrocity. Rape, however, is not a natural, sexual impulse but an explicit policy of war; its systematic use in the Balkans was far from unprecedented. In this paper I will explore the ways in which Western perceptions of the Balkans and of rape outside the context of war impact upon the way in which the West understands these rape camps. In order to do this, I will examine how rape in war is presented to the armies and how raped women are viewed by the nation. I will also explore how rape is used as a strategy when a nation is presenting itself to the international community. Through this analysis I will attempt to answer the question of whether or not rape can be appropriated into the collective consciousness of a nation. I will examine how processes of symbolic geography allow us to "gender" victimhood. Consequently, while a "feminine" victimhood may be presented to the international community, a "masculinized" victimhood must be reflected internally by the nation to its people. This process of "masculinizing" victimhood requires nations to appropriate the suffering of women but to marginalize the women themselves and to disempower "female" victimhood. I will argue that the dehumanization of female victims allows their needs for humanitarian and political aid to be ignored, and that it is therefore necessary to consider how representations of women raped during the Balkan war can be changed. CSAS

FRIMAN, H Richard (Marquette U) THE ART OF REGULATION: MARTIAL ARTS AS THREATS TO SOCIAL ORDER What explains patterns of government regulation of the martial arts? Despite offering a positive path to personal enlightenment, physical health, and mental discipline, the martial arts have faced selective and broad prohibitions. This paper explores the social construction of the martial arts as threats to social order. Drawing on cases from the United States and Japan, the paper assesses the relative roles of politicians, enforcement officials, and the media in this construction. CSAS

FULLER, Kathleen (U Missouri-Kansas City) DIVERSITY, NOT DIVISIVENESS Diversity and multiculturalism are the buzzwords of the 90s. While appreciation of other cultures is vital, when we focus on /celebrate what separates us from others, there is the possibility that these differences can come to seem more important than our commonalities, leading to divisiveness. This also leads to the tendency to conflate specific physical phenotypes with specific cultures. Therefore it is vital that the reasons for human physical diversity be taught in conjunction with classes discussing cultural diversity. The way to avoid divisiveness is to realize that phenotype does not equate with culture; that various phenotypes relate to ancestral adaptations to differing environments; that our ability to adapt to differing environments is due to our genetic diversity/variation and is, therefore, a necessity; and that whatever diversity we see rests on a massive underlying genetic unity. What makes us human is far more important than what makes us diverse. CSAS

GARDNER, Lish (Centre) UNPOPULAR CULTURE(?): THE CULTURE WITHIN A CULTURE ON THE 'OTHER' SIDE OF TOWN Majority power structures in a small southern city seem to mirror the nationwide patterns, reflecting black/white and concomitant 'class' issues, and these overt patterns seem to inform the popular conceptions of 'how things are'. Complicating and enriching the various 'cultural scenes' involved, an ethnographic inquiry into the subculture of the 'other' side of town potentially uncovers another world with different language, different power structures, and different cultural behaviors. Through classic participant observation and the use of a 'key' informant who is on the margin, the metaphorical edge of the community, this case study will explore this subculture and the implications for our larger culture. CSAS

GARRISS, Aaron (U Kansas) IMAGES AND REALITY: THE STANDARDIZATION OF MT. FUJI THROUGH HOKUSAI The Japanese proclaim to be 'at one with nature' or that they live in harmony with nature. The native religious tradition of Shintoism illustrates this centrality of nature to the Japanese people. It is based on the belief that everything in the environment is the potential abode of a deity. The Noh song "The Great Shrine" eloquently captures this belief: "Nowhere is there a shadow in which a god does not reside: in peaks, ridges, pines, cryptomerias, mountains, rivers, seas, villages, plains and fields, everywhere there is a god..." When Buddhism was introduced from China in the 6th century, it was necessary to acclimate to these prevailing perceptions of nature. In the words of Dogen, the thirteenth century Buddhist philosopher, "the impermanence of grass, trees and forests is verily the Buddhahood. . . . These mountains, rivers and earth are all the sea of the Buddhahood." The Japanese attitudes toward nature began to be solidified in the image of Mt. Fuji, representing nature, sacredness, beauty, every ideal existence of this world, and Japan itself. During the Edo period, the woodblock artist Katsushika Hokusai (1760-1849) produced a series of thirty-six views of Mt. Fuji. The paper examines this series to formulate a hypothesis addressing in what way Mt. Fuji is the ultimate symbol in Japan for the divine, the natural, and perhaps the man-made. We approach this series with a question if it can be looked at as a Japanese way of defining what nature is and what relationship humans have with nature. CSAS

GINTHER, Gray (U Kansas) REPRESENTING OBSERVED AND IMAGINED EVENTS: ARTISTS AND AUDIENCE During the Edo and Meiji periods, many artists left for us visual texts of the current events. One Edo woodblock print artist Tsukioka Yoshitoshi (1839-92) had the Meiji Restoration and the Satsuma Rebellion as one of his subject matters. I propose to examine Yoshitoshi's approach and a "journalistic" approach. For example, the prints from Yoshitoshi's series Kaidai Hyakusenso were inspired by an event eyewitnessed by the artist, yet Yoshitoshi chose the allegorical approach to portray the event, choosing symbolically significant images from Japan's historical past to convey his interpretation of a contemporary event. In this series, the imagination travels from eyewitnessed present to the past and the past into the present. In contrast, incidents of the Satsuma Rebellion took place in Kyushu, and like most other artists of his day, Yoshitoshi had no way to witness these events. Despite this, his prints of the Satsuma Rebellion are mostly done in the journalistic approach. The artist relies solely on his imagination to portray events in the far-away place. Yoshitoshi's allegorical approach looks to the past to find meaning, expression, and continuity in a rapidly changing society, and the result may be his commentary on the current events. His journalistic approach provides the artist's view of reality and the viewers are given an opportunity for realistic experience of the changing currents of contemporary life. CSAS

GILES, Peter W ((U East London/St. Andrews U) AFFLICTION AS A STRATEGY: VOODOO CRISIS Through an analysis of the sequential states a Vodou specialist has to achieve to gain credibility, acceptance and a following, a critique of Lewis' theory of affliction will be offered and amendments made. The process of affliction as a humbling agent, which when overcome validates the ritual specialist as a healer does not emphasise why the affliction must be severe. Drawing on data collected in Haiti, it will be argued that candidates must first refuse demands made by the lwa to become ritual specilists. Refusal to comply will result in the candidates becoming afflicted. According to the local community only protracted resistance to these demands will demonstrate the candidates' fitness. Moreover, their suffering must progressively intensify until reluctantly they submit to the lwas demands. Only then with the community be convinced that their afflictions and the demands made by the lwa are genuine. ARS

GOOD, Meredith (Grinnell C) TEMPER VERSUS TUFF: A MATERIAL SCIENCES APPROACH TO CERAMIC ANALYSIS Cinder and tuff temper were used contemporaneously in the ceramics of the Sinagua, a Southwestern Pueblo group from about A. D. 1065 to A. D. 1300. In order to attempt to explain this phenomenon experimentally-produced cinder and tuff tempered disks were tested for heat conduction, porosity, thermal shock resistance, and strength. CSAS

GREEN, James W (U Washington) PUBLIC MODELS FOR PRIVATE EXPERIENCES OF GRIEF IN AMERICAN POPULAR CULTURE Since Kubler-Ross moved death and its aftermath from the clinic into popular consciousness, there has emerged a sprawling human services industry devoted to "grief management" and "grief work" for the relief of the bereaved. The players in this industry are diverse and only occasionally connected with one another--academic and clinical researchers; social service personnel and volunteers; self-help books, programs and workshops; internet chat groups; and a variety of media commentators. This paper examines several examples of this proliferating grief discourse. My interest is in how grief is constructed in the post-Kubler-Ross era; who promotes the new models of grief; and what recommendations for the afflicted they put forward. I suggest that in the absence of explicit rituals for mourning the death of another, the project of grief in contemporary popular culture is repair and reconstruction of the self. This emphasis on self, rather than the fate of the recently deceased, reflects the decline of hegemonic religious ideologies in American culture in this century. It can be understood as well as a manifestation of what Anthony Giddens has called the "pure relationship," a distinctive feature of personhood that is peculiar to the conditions of late modernity. ARS

GREY, Mark A (U Northern Iowa) A HARD ACT TO FOLLOW: THE GARDEN CITY CHANGING RELATIONS PROJECT AND THE ANTHROPOLOGY OF THE RURAL MIDWEST The Garden City Changing Relations Project demonstrated that anthropologists have important and timely things to say about economic and social change in the American Midwest. It also demostrated that significant research on ethnic relations is not confined to urban areas. One important result of this project was that it provided the ethnographic and methodological basis for further research of its kind in other areas in the Midwest. This presentation discusses two studies in rural Iowa by a memeber of the Garden City team. These studies, in Storm Lake and Marshalltown, Iowa, owe a great deal to the Garden City experience. However similar the experience of these communities may be, there are also significant differences. Particular attention will be paid to the political dimension of this research, as well as the very different reactions of local business and community leaders. CSAS

GUTHRIE, Stewart E (Fordham U) IS RELIGION PROJECTION? A CAUTIONARY NOTE The claim that religious belief constitutes a "projection" of human psychology upon the world at large dates at least from Ludwig Feuerbach, who held that such projection allows humans to envision both a perfected vision of themselves and an escape from their existential limitations. Subsequent variations on this theme include that of Freud, who added that such projection stems from the child's experience of its parents and that it allows adults to deal with otherwise-unresolved conflicts concerning that experience. Varied twentieth-century anthropologists, among others, have adopted some version of projectionism as an explanation of religion. However, the assertion that religion constitutes a projection--and thus a peculiarly biased, and even delusional, interpretation of the world--seems to exaggerate the distinctiveness of religious worldviews. Among other things, it implies that nonreligious aspects of human perceptions and conceptions typically are not biased, but rather are neutral or objective. I shall try to undermine the projectionist account of religion by showing weaknesses in both Feuerbach's and Freud's psychologies and by showing resemblances and continuities between religious and nonreligious conceptions of the world. ARS

HANSON, F Allan (U Kansas) WILL WE DESIGN GENETIC SUPER-BABIES? The use of new genetic knowledge and techniques in the fight against disease (negative eugenics) is widely welcomed, but the possibility of using them for the purpose of improving already-normal offspring (positive eugenics) is often met with misgiving. Still, most people that this is likely to happen when the relevant technologies become practicable. A current practice relevant to this issue is artificial insemination by donor. To what degree do positive eugenic considerations influence the choice women make of sperm donors? Using questionnaire data and interviews with women who have used donor insemination, this paper examines the place of positive eugenics in current practices of donor selection, and extrapolates from that to a possible future when technologies for assisted reproduction become more far-reaching and inexpensive. CSAS

HARRIS, Sarah E (C of Wooster) THE TOPHET There are two general theories concerning the role of the Phoenecian tophet: 1) The tophets were burial grounds for children who were blood sacrifices, or 2) The tophets were burial grounds for children who had died of natural causes, although the dead bodies might still have been ussed as a sacrifice. I examine this debate using the tophets at Carthage (Tunisia), Motya (Sicily), and Tharros (Sardinia) as primary examples. Because this is such a controversial topic, I employ an inductive approach, or an examination of individual topics to reach a general theory. The individual topics I research are as follows: 1) A summary of the archaeological data from the various sites facilitating an overarching comparison. 2) A survey of the literary evidence from stelae and ancient authors pertaining to tophets. 3) An examination of the Phoenician religion with emphasis on the roles of Tanit and Baal Hammon. 4) A comparison of the burial practices between "regular" cemeteries and the tophet. 5) The establishment of a percentage for the normal rate of natural infant mortality. 6) A working definition of the term sacrifice. 7) A description of both the natural and economic environment and any insights they provide concerning the varying frequencies of the urns. With the combination of the information from these topics I form a logical theory explaining the tophet's role. CSAS

HART, Kimberly (Indiana U) IMAGES AND AFTERMATHS: THE USE AND CONTEXTUALIZATION OF ATATURK IMAGERY IN POLITICAL DEBATES IN TURKEY Political imagery is a widespread vehicle for the communication of political allegiances for or against state sescularist ideology in Turkey. In this paper, I discuss the implications of imagery and speech at public demonstrations (Summer 1997) which confronted Islamic political movements and state secularism through individual acts of counter-protest. Specifically, I compare the aftermath of two demonstrations at which secularist women spoke against Islamists protesting government policies curtailing Islamic education. My discussion draws upon ethnographic evidence and newspaper reports in which the women were either vilified or rewarded for their attempts at political speech. This article contributes to the study of political ideology vis-a-vis government policy, Islamic political movements and individual speech. I argue that the gendered dimension of political speech and the utilization of political imagery, both Islamic and secular is exploited by the press through photography to coopt individual protests and reformulate them as ideological positions. CSAS

HARTRANFT, Linda (Ohio State U at Marion) "THE AMERICAN OBSESSION": LIFE HISTORY AND REFLECTIONS ON RACE BY ELDERLY WHITE WOMEN The stories of three white women in their eighties reflect their time and place in the world as they tell their life histories over a period of weeks. Studs Terkel (1992) has characterized race as "the American Obsession," and the power of this issue is evident in the unsolicited stories which surface as Catherine, Anne, and Margaret talk about their lives. From a focal point of volunteer work, to a friend's racist husband, to regret about advice given to a young couple, race plays a part in their stories. Their reactions to race are a significant part of their self-concepts and self-representations. CSAS

HASCALL, Susan C (Kansas State Court of Appeals; Wichita State U) NATIVE AMERICAN SOVEREIGNTY AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT There are three bases for sovereignty in the United States: federal, state and tribal. Although Congress claims plenary authority over Native American affairs the Supreme Court has recognized that Native American tribes partially retain the sovereignty that existed before contact with Europeans. The extent to which this sovereignty has been recognized varies with the political climate of the times, and it has led to confllict between state and tribal governments. However, Native Americans have attempted to use their unique legal status to develop sustainable resources. Most recently, Native American tribes have been taking advantage of their sovereignty by opening gambling casinos on tribal lands in states where gambling is not permitted. The extent to which these casinos represent sustainable development is still open to question. CSAS

HATCHER, Evelyn Payne (St Cloud State U; U Minnesota) THE POST-PRIMITIVE ANTHROPOLOGY OF ART Defining the anthropology of art as the study of the way this aspect of culture is related to other aspects of culture and society, questions are raised as to the usefulness of insights gained in smaller societies for understanding the roles of art in complex ones. Questions concerning the dynamics of fluorescent periods bring out some surprising comparisons among the societies used as examples. CSAS

HEINZE, Ivonne (U Kansas) TWO CULTURES IN CONTACT: CODE-SWITCHING IN THE SPANISH-ENGLISH SPEAKING COMMUNITY OF EAST LOS ANGELES This paper proposes an anthropological and linguistic analysis of the code-switching patterns of the bilingual community of East Los Angeles. Although, code-switching has been mostly analyzed as a linguistic phenomenon, I suggest, based on the code-switching patterns of the dialogues of three contemporary Chicano films, that its occurrence has also an anthropological explanation. Linguistically, it is a sign of proficiency in two languages. Culturally, it is the reflection of the co-existence of two cultures, the Mexican and the American cultures. Since language transmitts cultural values and norms, I suggest that the community of East Los Angeles creates patterns of linguistic behavior that fuse certain values of both cultures. The speech of Chicanos, especially code-switching, expresses the bicultural values of the community. I propose that the code-switching in these two languages is a necessary linguistic strategy for the expression of the Chicano identity. CSAS

HELLICKSON, Justin (Beloit C) THE TALE OF THE MWAI MASK In 1994, the Logan Museum of Anthropology acquired an extensive collection of New Guinea art and artifacts. In this paper I discuss one of the objects in that collection, a Mwai mask, and trace its transformation from cultural object to museum artifact. Beginning with an investigation of its cultural significance, context of manufacture, and ceremonial uses, I contrast these aspects of the mask with museological concerns about conservation, provenance, physical characteristics, condition and other qualities necessary for proper cataloguing. Through a discussion of these various aspects of the mask, I will demonstrate how museums transform material culture into ethnographic artifacts. CSAS

HESSE, India S (U Kansas) THE INTERPRETIVE POTENTIAL OF SMALL-SIZED LITHIC DEBITAGE IN HEARTH-ASSOCIATED ASSEMBLAGES The recovery of small-sized lithic debitage (< 3 cm) provides another line of evidence in the interpretation of archaeological spatial patterning and technology at hunter-gatherer campsites. Commonly, such interpretations rely primarily on studies and distributions of larger artifact classes. Hearths are commonly the focus around which campsite related activities are conducted. The nature of the use of space, discard patterns, and the accumulation of materials around hearths necessitates fine-scaled analyses and multiple lines(and sizes) of evidence. Small debitage can refine our interpretations of larger lithic distributions. The potential of small debitage for understanding artifact distributions and use of space in hearth-associated assemblages is explored using material from the Magdalenian campsite of Verberie. CSAS

HIGGINS, Rylan (U Kansas) TAKING OUT THE TRASH: REFUSE COLLECTORS AND THEIR RESPONSES TO STIGMATIZATION Surveys show that refuse collection ranks near the bottom of the occupational prestige scale, and social scientists claim that (1) a person's occupation is the most important component of identity and fulfillment, and (2) that stigmatized individuals usually attempt to escape their spoiled identities. My research with trash collectors in Lawrence confirms the job ranks low--workers are stigmatized according to their perceptions. They think their job is looked upon with scorn. But their experience with a stigmatized occupation brings the other two conclusions into question. I explored the multiple responses of refuse collectors to stigma and found that they embrace their identity and do not place occupational identity first in line of life's priorities. They redefine success and enjoy their work despite the public's opinion of it. CSAS

HILL, Christina (U Chicago) WOUNDED KNEE, THE FIELD MUSEUM, AND NAGPRA The first battle of Wounded Knee, in the end of the 19th century on the Pine Ridge Reservation in South Dakota, was a salient and significant moment in American Indian history. Now called a massacre, the battle saw the deaths of many important Sioux leaders including Sitting Bull. Two days after the battle, a number of items were collected from Sitting Bull's cabin by a local priest. Many of those items are now held by the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago. NAGPRA inventories have not specified these holdings, but allof the items should be eligible for repatriation under the "cultural patrimony" provision of the act, including thos which are not, clearly, "sacred." CSAS/ARS

HOEMAN, Peter N (SUNY-Buffalo) DARK ASPECTS OF THE GODDESS:DEITY AND EMOTION AMONG NEOPAGAN WOMEN Neopaganism is a movement composed of a continuum of nature religions. These religions usually worship the goddess in some form, and are devoted largely to healing, especially though self-exploration and self-improvement. This being the case, it may seem surprising to see sinister, violent, or dismal images of deity prominently displayed alongside gentle, nurturing images. An examination of the roles that these dark conceptions play in religious practice indicates that they serve as models for changes in behavior and attitude. The environment of neopaganism, usually a secretive domain separate from everyday life, provides a safe domain in which women can create alternative models of emotion and self. Through the use of these models, neopagan women come to re-envision themselves in positive ways that they hope will affect their everyday lives. Besides providing models for behavior modification, the concepts surounding dark aspects of the goddess also serve therapeutic functions for the women studied. Emotions, particularly painful ones, seem to be of central importance to these women, and conceptualizations of dark aspects of the goddesses may serve as models that help women evaluate and cope with these emotions. ARS

HOLT, Ronald L (Weber State U) THE DAOIST ORIGINS OF NINJUTSU The origins and roots of Ninpo (the Japanese martial art of stealth and intellignece-gathering) are hotly disputed. There is some evidence that Vajrayana Buddhist practices, shamanism and Shinto were incorporated into the eclectic practices of the ninja families. Recent research by the author suggests that Daoist energy meditation and other Daoist forms of training were more central to the growth of Nonpo than has previously been thought. This paper explores the influences and personalities associated with Ninpo that can be traced to Daoism. The author is a personal student of Ninpo Grandmaster Shoto Tanemura. CSAS

HOWELL, Brian M (Washington U-St Louis) BEYOND CONVERSION: THE ANTHROPOLOGY OF CHRISTIANITY FOR THE 21 ST CENTURY This paper will explore the empirical and theoretical concerns for the anthropological study of non-Western Christianity in the post-missionary era. Although missions and missionaries continue to be important influences in many parts of the world, many, if not most, christian movements have become administratively and financially autonomous in recent decades (or, in the case of Catholocism, integrated into the heirarchy of the church). An anthropology which seeks to analyze these forms of Christianity must come to grips with the changes Christianity has undergone and develop new theoretical approaches which can account for the local/global nature of a post-missionary, post-colonial Christianity. Using my own field experiences in the US and the Philippines as well as recent work in the anthropology of non-Western Christianity throughout the world, this paper will argue that while much of the anthropology of Christianity continues to rely on the theoretical perspectives which have informed conversion studies, other approaches may offer more complete, or at least alternative accounts of Christian development, practice and social or political integration in the non-Western context. Furthermore I will point to a number of important issues (i.e., distinctions between Catholic and non-Catholic Christianity, textuality, and globalism) reflected in the literature and by my own field experiences which I argue will become increasingly salient in any anthropological account of Christianity in the decades following missionization and first-generation conversion. ARS

HUNTER, Jennifer L (U Kansas) CONSIDERATIONS OF PARENTAL INVESTMENT AND SENTIMENT Universal patterns of maternal bonding, investment, and grief, though widely accepted in modern Western cultures, are challenged by cross-cultural research. Challenging authors, including Piers, Scheper-Hughes, Robson and Kumar, Ruddick, James, and Blaffer-Hrdy suggest that cultural, socioeconomic, and political factors are highly significant in the creation of what is accepted as "natural" maternal sentiment, and that maternal sentiment and behavior are in part "selected" based on a biologic drive for the mother's(*) own health and survival [*: Though research is focused on "maternal" sentiment, this framework is appropriate for "paternal" or "parental" application as well.] This presentation supports the premise that human mothers, in cultures of abundance as well as scarcity, possess the ability to "naturally" experience sentiments for their infants/children that range along a continuum from separation and distance to attachment and empathy. When infant/child demands on resources, both material and emotional, threaten the mother's sense of "survival" or health, mothers may adjust their degree of sentiment and investment to improve their own sense of well-being, with varying consequences to the infant. This presentation offers a framework within which to explore the degree of maternal need for "retrenchment" (decreased degree of attachment and empathy), retrenchment behaviors, and corresponding consequences for the child, ranging from protection to endangerment. Approaches for maternal/child health teaching and intervention which are sensitive to both maternal need for retrenchment, and to protection of the child are discussed. "Responsible" retrenchment and investment behaviors vs. "irresponsible" retrenchment and investment behaviors are explored. CSAS

HUNTER, Jennifer L (U Kansas) THEORY AND PRACTICE: BEREAVEMENT AS A RITE OF PASSAGE Van Gennep's theory of rites of passage describes stages of separation, transition, and reintegration that accompany significant life changes, such as birth, adolescence, marriage, retirement, and death. Ritual marks the significance of transitions and provides order amidst events that are often beyond human control. Death rituals have been much described in anthropological literature, and stages similar to Van Gennep's are echoed in many ethnographic descriptions. Death rituals involve not only the dying person, but also the loved ones who grieve. In a number of death rituals there is not only a final ritual act which signifies reintegration of the dead into a new state of being, but also a final ritual act which signifies the formal end of grief for loved ones and reintegration into community life. Yet, bereavement is seldom emphasized in the list of events commonly thought of as rites of passage. This author enters anthropology from a nursing background with specialization in hospice care for terminally ill individuals and their families. Theory has enlightened conceptualization of end of life, and has helped the author to identify a "missing" ritual related to grief in modern America. Unlike many cultural practices, a formal end of grieving is not commonly ritualized in the United States, potentially intensifying the difficulty of reintegration into life without the deceased person. This author has been able to apply theory to practice, and introduce the concept and examples of ritualized grief closure to hospice caregivers, bereavement counselors, and bereavement support groups for consideration. CSAS

JOHNSON, Thomas H (U Wisconsin-Stevens Point) A LAKOTA SUN DANCE AMONG THE SHOSHONE: ETHNOTOURISM AND ETHNOEDUCATION During the summer of 1997, and for the past three summers, grandsons of Shoshone shaman Tom Wesaw (1886-1972) have sponsored a Lakota Sun Dance with minimal involvement of the Shoshone community on the Wind River Reservation, Wyoming (the Shoshone sponsor several Sun Dances of their own). This Sun Dance involved a Berkeley, CA organization, Global Routes, which sponsors three-week ethno-experiences for teenagers among various Native peoples for about $3,000. Without the help of these 18 affluent non-Native teens, the ceremony would not have taken place. The rationale for the event was couched in educational terms, as well as a four-year long "vov", which will be renewed for four more years - or as long as Global Routes is involved. CSAS

JOHNSON, Helen S (U Wisconsin-Stevens Point) CAJUN SWAMP TOURS: DON'T FALL OUT OF THE BOAT, SOMETHING MIGHT EAT YOU Both the Louisiana wetlands and the Cajun culture face a precarious future. The wetlands of southern Louisiana are a source of food and a way of life. They are also a tourist attraction. One out three tourists visiting New Orleans will pay an average of $45 to take a swamp tour. There are 12 swamp tours leaving from within an hour's drive of the French Quarter. The swamp tour is an ethno-tourisn genre: your Captain must be a stereotypical Cajun bayou denizen: he can distinguish a cotton mouth from a coral snake 100 feet away, glide you into the life of other "real Cajuns", and introduct you to the cute baby 'gator on the dock (so you're guaranteed to see at least one. Given the fact that this does not portray modern Cajun culture, a question in interpretive anthropology arises: are these tours an attempt to educate tourists? CSAS

JOHNSON, Susan C (Wichita State U) WOMEN AND DEVELOPMENT IN FIJI The people of the Pacific area have been greatly influenced by the West. Improvements in the standard of living, education, medicine, technology and environmental grown have been key to the area's development. Not all of the changes have been advantageous to the people. The developing countries have also been experiencing greater social inequities, degradation of the environment, community fragmentation and violence. As we head into the 21st century, development and sustainability for the people is a growing concern. In this paper I present the views of ten women of Fiji, interviewed in Fiji during the summer of 1996. Their perspectives and experiences on development andmodernization are explored as they reflect from their personal lives and their surroundings. All ten women are acutely aware of the "development" occurring in Fiji on the individual, regional and national level, and the effects on them and their people and land. Topics of concern including the increase of crime, poverty, unemployment and the lack of family and cultural values dominated the interviews with the ten Fiji women. Many of these women are active on the local, national and international level in their struggle to eradicate what they see as problems developing and occurring in their homeland. These women are not the only ones playing an active role. Numerous NGOs are being created, students of all ages are being informed and taking the initiative to help, and at the grass roots level, villages and its members are creating organizations and programs they see as steps or possible solutions to the "problems" of Fiji. There is mobilization among Fiji's people to play an active role in how their country is developed. CSAS

JONES, David E (U Central Florida) and HOLIDAY, Trenton (U Central Florida) FIGHTING STANCES OF CHIMPANZEES I will examine the fighting postures, attitudes, stances, etc. of the chimpanzee and compare them with traditional fighting postures of humans. Foot, leg, hand, arm and head placement will be the focus of the study with a peripheral reference to the similarities and differences in ape/human weapon using strategies. CSAS

KAMP, Kathryn (Grinnell C) HANDS-ON RESEARCH AS A TEACHING TECHNIQUE The Anthropology Department at Grinnell College has instituted a policy of encouraging original student research in the classroom as well as in independent studies. The goal is to make students more aware of the dynamic nature of the research process and of the relationship between theory and data. Projects can be organized on an independent basis or by involving all the students in the class in a single project. Types of research include experimental archaeology, ethnoarchaeology, cross-cultural research done with electronic HRAF, interviews, and participant observation. Such efforts can be further encouraged and supported by grants for instrumentation and student research assistants. CSAS

KARDULIAS, P NICK (C Wooster) THE 1997 SEASON OF THE KORINTHIA REGIONAL RESEARCH CONSORTIUM, GREECE In the summer of 1997, the Korinthia Regional Research Consortium (KRRC) conducted research both at the site of Isthmia and in the Korinthian hinterland. The general purpose of the KRRC is to undertake diachronic investigations in this region of Greece which has been since antiquity a major crossroads between the Peloponnesos and the rest of mainland Greece to the north, and a crucial trade nexus between the Aegean on the east and the Ionian Sea, Italy, and the central Mediterranean region to the west. The 1997 fieldwork involved the final stages of documenting the Roman Bath at Isthmia, which ws a Panhellenic sanctuary in antiquity. The Bath served patrons who visited the site to participate in the major religious and athletic festivals celebrated here every two years. Its use and abandonment helps us document the evolution of Isthmia from a major classical site to a rural medieval backwater. The work involved detailed architectural drawings of visible remains and geophysical survey of possible buried features. A team also investigated the late medieval site at Agios Vasilios. Excavations in this fortified center explored the Frankish architecture for its potential as a indicator of economic and social stratification. Finally, the KRRC initiated a geomorphological survey in the eastern Korinthia to examine the sedimentation sequence; the goal is to determine the degree to which cultural and natural factors interact in the formation of the landscape through time. This spectrum of research informs efforts to reconstruct the evolution of settlement patterns. CSAS

KAWANO, Satsuki (U Pittsburgh) EMBODIMENT AND EMPLACEMENT IN JAPANESE RITUAL LIFE By humbly facing deities and ancestors, Japanese people express important moral values in bodily and spatial terms. In ritual places, Japanese people "humbly face" kami (deities) and hotoke (ancestors, Buddhist images), the two major targets of ritual attention. During ritual encounters with kami and hotoke, common bodily practices in Japanese social life manifest themselves as basic sets of ritual actions. Rituals for deities commonly consist of purification, offering, bowing and hand-claps, while those for the ancestors or Buddhas commonly consist of offering, burning incense, and putting one's hands together. Both everyday and non-everyday acts may be ritualized. Everyday practices (e.g., cleaning, giving and receiving food and goods, and bowing) embody and emplace important Japanese values, such as purity, reciprocity, and knowing indebtedness to others. During rituals, performers can draw meanings from these everyday acts. Meanwhile, ritual acts also involve practices that are uncommon in Japanese social life, such as clapping hands, putting one's hands together, and burning incense. It is these non-everyday acts that are often used to symbolize the ritual encounters with deities, ancestors, and Buddhas in everyday conversations. Thus, performers can differentiate ritual occasions from non-ritual ones with these non-everyday practices. The data for this paper were obtained during my fieldwork in Kamakura, a mid-sized city with 171,000 people near Tokyo. ARS

KENT, Alexandra H (Gothenburg U) UNITY IN DIVERSITY: THE SATHYA SAI BABA MOVEMENT IN MALAYSIA This paper focuses on the ideas of unity and diversity as expresssed in the context of the Sathya Sai Baba (Hindu revivalist) movement in Malaysia. The analysis examines the way in which the Sathya Sai Central Council of Malaysia, which comprises almost exclusively middle-class Indians, seeks to embrace the three major Malaysian ethnic groups within the scope of its spiritual and social ambition. One of the ways in which the Council phrases and delivers its mission utilises notions favoured by the Malay/Muslim political élite--Unity in Diversity. The inherent ambiguities of these ideas allow the Council to employ them so as to project an image of politically desirable participation in the governmentally promoted nation-building agenda, whilst simultaneously alluding to the spiritual and social transformation to which it aspires. Devotees consider Sai Baba to be one of many incarnations of a single Divine Source. His philosophy encourages religious heterogeneity, and insists that the essence of all true religious teachings is the same--various religious paths lead ultimately to one Divinity. In Malaysia, however, Muslims are forbidden to engage in non-Muslim religious activities, and Islam is equated by legal imperative with Malay ethnic identity, and thereby with political domination. The Prime Minister's appeal for a united Malaysian national which celebrates, or indeed insists upon, ethnic and religious diversity suggests a quite different interpretation of the Unity in Diversity slogan from that intended by the Sai Baba following. ARS

KINKAID III, George P (U Missouri-Columbia) GERMANIC PIRACY ON THE RHINE IN THE ROMAN IRON AGE AS A CASE STUDY OF GENERAL RAIDING PATTERNS Evidence for Germanic piracy in Roman times on the Rhine and surrounding areas comes from both written accounts and archaeological evidence. Roman documents detail the need for protection of both river traffic and riverside habitations from raiders. These attacks were indiscriminate by ethnic or political group. The accounts describe small-scale strikes staged from oared river boats. Such raiding behavior lasted all through the Roman period and beyond. Archaeological remains provide details of the boats themselves, of the booty taken, and by inference some of the techniques of piracy. The most well-known boat finds come from excavations in the 1980s in Mainz. Several boats were uncovered along with river port facilities, and these are clues to both Roman patrol boats and Germanic pirates' craft and their moorings since both sides used similar vessels. The work of German archaeologists such as Olaf Hochmann have provided us with much information about river facilities and river traffic along the Rhine in the Roman period. The newly published wreck site of Neupost contains evidence of Allemannic raiding, including a large cache of Roman silver. Tools such as grappling hooks and weapons are indications of techniques of boarding or staging landings. The Germanic raiders of Roman times are a good case study for Indo-European raiding patterns, including water-bourne piracy, attacking land dwellings and towns, and of the nature of warfare needed to carry out such strikes. CSAS

KLENS-BIGMAN, Deborah (Independent Scholar; New York Budokai Dojo) HOW IS MARTIAL ARTS A PERFORMING ART? An exploration of the theoretical basis of martial arts as a performance genre, focusing on martial arts as a means of cultural identity, self-expression and aesthetic satisfaction for practitioners. I will identify the performative structure inherent in traditional martial arts practice, apparent in the dojo, in private, solo practice, and in public demonstrations, along with secondary elements characterizing martial arts in particular as a performance genre. I will draw theoretical principles primarily from Richard Schechner and Philip Zarilli, illustrated by examples from Shannon Jackson, John Donohue and others, along with my own experience in practicing iaido. Japanese enbukai and New York City area martial arts demonstrations will serve as more public examples for analysis. Slides will be presented. CSAS

KNOWLTON, David Clark (Rio Negro LC) DURKHEIM'S COLLECTIVE REPRESENTATIONS AND THE PROBLEM OF RELIGION: A VIEW FROM DISCOURSE ANALYSIS Greg Urban's work on discourse and culture (The Metaphysical Community: [University of Texas Press, 1996], and A Discourse Centered Appriach to Culture [University of Texas Press, 1001]) has challenged much of the Durkheimian heritage of collective representations, by questioning the gap between the apparent ontology embedded in the categories and the ontology suggested by the usage of the categories within discourse. This potentially has much to say for the study of religion. In this paper I shall critically compare Urban's work and the Durkheimian tradition within the empirical situation of modern Mormonism and in terms of the question of the ontology of collective representations of the church, qua community within other communities. I shall also place in tension the relationship of representation with social organization, i.e., the ontology of social groups. ARS

KOEMAN, Sarah R (Grinnell C) and TAYLOR, Rachel (Grinnell C) AN INVESTIGATION OF PETROGLYPH PRODUCTION Advances in rock art studies have produced much information about rock art style, the meaning of rock art, and social and environmental contexts associated with rock art (Salzer 1987: 278). Despite the plethora of rock art research, few studies have investigated the production of petroglyphs, one type of rock art, through scientific experimentation. To investigate petroglyph production, we produced a number of simple petroglyphs on sandstone using four different tools, (antler, quartizite cobble, flint cobble, and chert flakes) and three techniques (pecking, chiseling, and incising). The experiment is designed to investigate the relative effectiveness of the tool types and techniques as measured by effort expended and to determine whether technique and tool type can be inferred by the characteristics of the petroglyph. Our results indicate that direct percussion requires less effort than indirect percussion, that certain tool types are more effective than others, and that the technique of glyph production can be inferred from the characteristics of the petroglyph. CSAS

KOSTARELOS, Frances (Governors State U) CHRISTIAN HERITAGE TRAINING CENTER Christian Heritage Training Center Community Church is located in a storefront in a poverty-stricken neighborhood on the South Side of Chicago. In 1987 the congregation established a Community Academic Para School for children in the neighborhood. This paper considers the symbols that structure church leadership, organization, and the outreach program. I doing so it examines the place of collective consciousness and moral solidarity in resisting poverty and concomitant social dislocations. It will discuss the congregation's interpretation of the biblical story as they mobilize to respond to problems in their neighborhood that result from uneven distribution of power and economic resources. This paper is based on my participant observation research in the congregation and interviews I have conducted among tutors and program graduates. The paper draws on social theory concerned with religious symbols, consciousness, and action among the opressed. Specifically, my theoretical framework draws on the work on Jean Comaroff in South Africa and Roger Lancaster in Nicaragua on religion and resistance. CSAS

KRAL, Karla (U Kansas) LATINO-IMMIGRANT HOUSING IN GARDEN CITY, KANSAS: CURRENT FINDINGS AND NEW DIRECTIONS FOR RESEARCH Based on ethnographic research conducted six years after the completion of the Ford Foundation's Changing Relations Project, this paper discusses Latino-immigrants' residential patterns, housing conditions, and relations with landlords in Garden City, Kansas. Since rental housing was one area of inquiry missing from the original research in Garden City, more research needs to be carried out on this topic. New directions are proposed for exploring the incorporation of new immigrants into the town's housing stock. CSAS

KRAMER, Eric W (U Chicago) FAITH IN THE MATERIAL: OBJECTS AND RELIGIOUS SUBJECTS IN A BRAZILIAN PENTECOSTAL CHURCH Material relations with divinity have not typically characterized Protestant liturgical practice and faith. This paper examines the use and meanings of material objects and objectification in the production of religious subjects in a recent Brazilian Pentecostal denomination. In contrast to more "traditional" forms of Protestantism and Pentecostalism in Brazil, some denominations such as the Universal Church of the Kingdom of God (IURD) extend the power of God and that of human faith into material tokens imbued with powers to bring about healing, prosperity, and protection from evil. These objects circulate as media of exchange, ritual, and communication between human and supernatural persons. As object, money figures into this as both a medium of sacrifice and one means to acquire material objects with sacred potency. In the church's doctrines, speech itself assumes an objectified character with the ability to produce desired as well as undesired consequences in the world. The mass appeal of these institutional practices suggests an intensification of the material, sensory, and pragmatic ends of faith, following a logic of consumption in an ever-expanding market economy. At the same time, those churches in the vanguard of this transformation have engaged with the symbolic relations of popular religion through the properties of objects in which they traffic. Like the mediation and intervention of saints in the Catholic Church, material objects, language and the medium of money in the Universal Church come to have analogous roles, but imply different constructions of the person in relation to the sacred. ARS

KUZNAR, Lawrence A (Indiana-Purdue U at Fort Wayne) NAVAJO RESPONSES TO DROUGHT A severe drought struck the Navajo reservation from the winter of 96/97 through the fall of 1997. A number of Navajo continue to practice traditional herding and agricultural activities on the reservation and the drought had a severe effect on their economic activities. I examine the severity of the drought, its impact on native vegetation, and its subsequent impacts on peoples' livestock., household economies, and social lives, as well as the varied ways Navajo herders mitigated the effects of the drought. The drought harmed people economically and socially, and people used a variety of means to mitigate its effects. Those families that could afford to used a combination of traditional and contemporary means to combat the effects of drought on their livestock. CSAS

LARSEN, Soren C (U Kansas) THE ART OF REPRESENTATION: CONSTRUCTIONS OF NATURE AND IDENTITY IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF A KANSAS STATE PARK With the damming of the Wakarusa River and the development of the Clinton Lake State Park in northeastern Kansas, one type of managed landscape was forcibly replaced with another through the displacement of local residents. The agropastoralist production system of farmers and ranchers was coopted by the Army Corps of Engineers' plan for water control and public recreation. Drawing from the differing representations of nature and identity expressed by the Corps and local residents, this paper discusses the issues of resource management, power, community displacement, and the development of the park. The paper outlines these multiple representations through an analysis of Clinton Lake State Park museum exhibits, information brochures, and the oral histories of displaced residents. This discussion will highlight the ways that nature and identity were creatively constructed by these groups to articulate their specific resource management goals and visions for the area. CSAS

LARZALERE, Norma Sakamoto (U Kansas) SEEING JAPAN THROUGH RICE: TRAVELING ALONG THE TOKAIDO ROAD The paper will prove into the pervasiveness of rice culture and how rice shapes "Japaneseness" as viewed in religious and ceremonial rites, rice as a staple for food and clothing, the economics of rice, the highway and waterway transportation systems, and social organization based on rice. The Fifty-Three Stations of the Tokaido Road prints by Ando Hiroshige (1797-1858) will serve as the primary source for this examination. Hiroshige's images elicit a nostalgic return to an historical imaginary of Edo. His sentimental, heartfelt images of the rice culture contrast with the Meiji vision of Western progress and enlightenment. The paper will also examine works by other artists to further support that rice is a special symbol of being Japanese. These works capture each moment of the planting and harvesting of rice, and include the landscape woodblock prints of Katushika Hokusai (1760-1849), the woodblock book illustrations by the "high culture" artist Maruyama Okyo (1733-1795), the rice culture series by Matsumura Goshun (1752-1811), illustrations from farming manuals promoting rice farming techniques, the Meiji woodblock prints by Kobayashi Kiyochika (1847-1915), and manga (comics) from various Meiji newspapers and magazines. The historical imaginary of Edo persists to the present day to help mirror and "re-invent" Japaneseness when encountering outsiders, as shown in the resistance of Japanese politicians and farmers to open the Japanese rice market to California rice. To the modern viewer, as a traveler back to the past, works of Hiroshige form an historical imaginary of a pure, life-affirming vision of everyday life. CSAS

LAUGHLIN, Charles D (Carleton U) ART AND SPIRIT: BRAIN, THE NAVAJO CONCEPT OF HOZHO AND KANDINSKY'S "INNER NECESSITY" Most traditional art forms are an expression of the spiritual dimension of a culture's cosmology. Religious art and iconography often reveals the hidden aspects of spirit as glimpsed through the filter of cultural significance. Moreover, traditional art, although highly abstract, may actually describe sensory experiences derived in alternative phases of consciousness. The often fuzzy concepts of "art" and "spirit" are analyzed and then operationalized in a way that makes them applicable to cross-cultural research. These concepts are then applied to the author's experiences with Navajo art and the relation between art and the important Navajo philosophical concept of hozho ("beauty," "harmony,"). A neurocognitive model is developed that essentially supports Wassily Kandinsky's contention that abstract art is the expression of an "inner necessity" of spirit. ARS

LIND, Gregg R (Grinnell C) NAKED ON FOUR WHEELS: HETEROSEXUAL ROLE LEARNING AND EXPRESSION IN THE CONTEXT OF THE ROLLER RINK In western Massachusetts, roller skating rinks are more than just places where people come to roller skate. They are spaces where adolescents can write, rehearse and perform adult scripts and roles. As adolescents, they both continue acting youth roles, and, by definition, begin the transition into adulthood and adult roles. In the comparative safety of the rink environment, they experiment with heterosexual relationships, social politics, and emulate the structures of race, class, and gender they see in the dominant adult culture. Through this rehearsal and revision process, they both emulate the adult culture of today and write the adult culture of tomorrow. CSAS

LIND, Gregg R (Grinnell C) USE-WEAR ANALYSIS OF EXPERIMENTAL COMPASS GRAVERS Through lithics and microwear analysis, two archaeologists at the Royal Ontario Museum have recently described and identified two previously unknown tool types found in local assemblages, which they call "compass gravers." Compass gravers were used prehistorically for inscribing circular designs on and carving discs out of wood, leather, bone, and shell. The author sought to replicate their results by constructing an experimental graver toolkit and using it on various materials to see how well the gravers' use-wear corresponded with published descriptions. The experiment points out many of the problems facing experimental archaeologists, including issues of common vocabularies between researchers and the problem of replicability. The author also proposes some ideas to aid in the inexperienced lithics analysis. CSAS

LOBENBRUCK, Dirk (Wichita State U) NEANDERTHAL AND HUMAN SPEECH: A CONTINUING DEBATE Human language, defined as symbolic language system, is among the basic characteristics of mankind. It is the most crucial means of transferring ideas from one person to another. Our speech organs create the sounds into which ideas are converted. Publicity has been given to the question of whether or not Neanderthals had language ability. Whereas Lieberman and Crelin (1971) claim that Neanderthals did not have the skeletal anatomy for producing speech, Arensburg et al. (1990), Carlisle and Siegel (1974), Houghton (1993), and Le May (1975), have criticized these findings. Speech communication is a complex process of encoding and decoding; a process of which Neanderthals were just as capable as "modern" humans. CSAS

LONG, Andrea (Grinnell C) and SCHEIMBERG, Denny (Grinnell C) ANALYSIS OF FOOD RESIDUES IN POTS Lipid analysis of food residues in ancient pots or pot sherds using gas chromatography and mass spectrophotometry is slowly becoming more popular but such tests are not currently done on a regular basis. The validity and feasibility of the gas chromatography test was analyzed in this experiment. An invasive and non-invasive extraction method of lipids from food residues on pots were compared. Three different foods were used: corn meal mush, olive mush, and tuna mush. This experiment also examined the effects of charring the pot on lipid analysis in order to simulate artifact destruction by fire. CSAS

MAERTENS, Deborah (U Minnesota-Morris) OUTWARD MIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES: THE SOCIOECONOMIC IMPACT ON TWO RURAL MEXICAN VILLAGES While much of the popular literature focuses on Mexican immigration from the perspective of its impact on the United States, this paper will examine the socioeconomic effects of immigration on two rural Mexican villages in the states of Colima and Michoacán. These villages lend themselves to comparison as the outward migration patterns have developed within uniquely different economic and historic parameters and the resultant situation for each village varies significantly. Young men began leaving the village of Palmillas, Colima over twenty years ago. What has been the long-term effect on this village that has been receiving American dollars and influence for over twenty years? Out migration from Purisima, Michoacán has manifested itself within a much different environment, and the impact on this village has been distinctly different. In addition, over this twenty year period, US attitudes toward Mexican immigration have changed significantly. Situating these two villages against one another provides a unique opportunity for comparative analysis of changing historical-structural social transformations and how patterns of out migration have differentially affected these two communities. CSAS

MANDRAPA, Steven (University of Chicago) MUSICAL IDEOLOGIES: FOLK MUSIC'S CONSTITUTIVE ROLE IN THE (RE)-PRODUCTION OF IDENTITY AND NATIONALISM IN THE FORMER YUGOSLAVIA The splintering of the Former Yugoslavia into nations was preceded and accompanied by a period of intensive propaganda and socially inflammatory public rhetoric aimed at edifying concepts of nationality and ethnicity. This goal was accomplished through many types of media, one important form of which was the musical folk revival and birth of "turbo-folk" music that took place. Music is a rich ground for ideologies which call on notions of an "essential spirit" of a people, and is regarded as a powerful and culturally persuasive medium because of its expressiveness. I will examine the unique ways in which music was used in accordance with ideologies of national identity, and how social powers manipulated the musical means of production to disseminate ideology and hegemonic notions of ethnicity and nationality. I am also interested in the notion that music is not a transparent medium, and acted as more than a transportational apparatus for ideology to pass through. I will show how music actively shaped the discussion and structured the ways in which ideologies interacted within its structures and lent itself better to certain ideological discourses than others. CSAS

MAUK, Nathan H. (University of Chicago) HOMELANDS AND HOMEPAGES: ETHNIC NATIONALISM IN CYBERSPACE: DIASPORIC IDENTITY CONFRONTS THE MACEDONIAN QUESTION Edward Said was neither the first nor the last to lament the reified, essentialized, and generally ignoble portrait which powerful hegemonies paint of their subaltern objects. But Said neglected to mention that, in this dialectical imagining, the Self is no less essentialized than the Other. Indeed, the nature of cultural self-construction requires that essentialized diacritics be employed according to an emblematic approach to identity, itself couched (because of the dialectic necessity to constitute culture as difference) in terms of symbolic geography. This paper, in confronting nationalist processes and rhetorics (in their formulation, dissemination, and acceptance, and as motivations to action including violence) as semiotic systems, observes some formal homologies between the recursive structure of geographic 'Orientalisms' and the communicative constraints imposed on discourse in electronic media. These formal qualities make computer-aided communications well-suited for creating and disseminating nationalist rhetorics, but also for exploring such rhetorics as discourses. Specific evidence is drawn from debate surrounding the national status of the controversial Republic of Macedonia and of its multi-ethnic inhabitants. In following a dialectic and diacritic approach to culture, ethnic nationalism in the Balkans emerges not as an historical aberration, but as a logical consequence of its political and economic situation and of that situation's impact on the media of discourse. CSAS

MAUK, Nathan H. (University of Chicago) IMAGINING VIOLENCE IN TAMIL SOUTH ASIA: AN ESSAY IN LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND HISTORY Revealing their Herderian origns, the rhetorics of ethnic nationalism demand an aestheticization of culture (or Culture) as coherent, eternal, and self-evident, coterminous with the constitution of a national "Race". Exploring the trajectory of nationalism and cultural emblems in Tamil-speaking South India and Sri Lanka, this paper ventures a semiotic theory of nationalism, leading to a partial explanation of ethnic violence. Paradoxically, the more a national culture becomes reified as an aesthetic object, the more it acts as an incentive to passionate action. In interpreting this paradox, we find the beginnings of an answer in some of the theories of C. S. Peirce. Though evidence is drawn chiefly from ethnographic accounts and from nationalist discourse of the world-wide web (where a Tamil nation in Ceylon has been reincarnated, as it were, in cyberspace), the scope of this paper also encompasses epistemological issues in theory and methodology. As a product of the author's own discomfort with both traditional and postmodern approaches to ethnography and ethno-hermeneutics, this paper also includes a suggestive critique of social-constructivist and discursive cultural theory. CSAS

MAXEY, Julian Dale (Ohio U-Chillicothe and Southern Campus) IS IT IN THE GENES, OR IS IT IN THE CULTURE? ABORIGINAL AUSTRALIAN IDENTITY ISSUES AND SOCIAL RACE This paper will discuss the conflicting views of Aboriginal culture and identity proposed by Aboriginal people, the dominant culture, and the role played by anthropologists and other social scientists in the debate. The Anglo majority in Australia has assumed the right to define and classify Aboriginal peoples. The resulting view has been based on the notion that culture and biology are related. Following Wagley (1974), the term "social race" is used to refer to caste or class differences based on supposed physical characteristics that separate groups into superior and inferior categories. Notions of social race have continued to be major factors in the debate on Aboriginal identity, culture, and the place of Aboriginal people in Australian society. For Aboriginal people, it is behavior, shared values, and place of origin that make up the important aspects of Aboriginality. The Aboriginal view of culture fits into what Schwartz (1980) has called a "distributive model" of culture, rather than one viewed from the perspective of social race. Aboriginal people argue that notions of social race still impact on Aboriginal lives in negative ways. Australian anthropologists have played an active role in the debate on Aboriginal identity. Anthropological positions have included those that support a distributive model of culture and identity; an argument for a culture of opposition developed in response to Anglo racism; and a challenge to the Aboriginal use of the term "Black" as a part of a unique identity as being racist itself. CSAS

MAYNARD, Kelly Lynne (U Illinois-Urbana-Champaign) A HORSE, A HORSE, MY KINGDOM FOR A HORSE: EVIDENCE FOR WARFARE IN EARLY INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES A widely held image of the Indo-Europeans is that of a war-loving people whose technological advantages allowed them to conquer and subdue the native peoples who lands they invaded. The assumptions that the Indo-Europeans had domesticated the horse and developed the war chariot contribute to this view. but what is the evidence on which this view is build? This paper examines the linguistic evidence for and against reconstructing the word for horse in PIE at a stage before the speakers of the Anatolian languages branched off. It focuses on the relationship between the Anatolian and Indo-Aryan or Indo-Iranian languages in this regard. I begin the paper recapitulating the standard viewpoint as promoted in Mallory (1989) that Indo-European speaking chariot warriors superimposed themselves on the non-Indo-European speaking populations of the Near East. I continue by outlining the problems (summarized in Hock (1996)) involved in accepting this view. Next I investigate in detail the linguistic arguments for and against positing Anatolian languages had an inherited word for horse. These include the evidence and counterevidence presented in the work of Gamkrelidze and Ivanov (1995), Puhvel (1994), Melchert (1993) and (1987), and Djakonov (1985). Then I examine the archaeological evidence for the two-wheeled battle-chariot as presented in the works of Piggot (1992) and (1983), Renfrew (1987), Bknyi (19987), Mellaart (1981), and Ghirshman (1977). I conclude that this is a case where the archaeological evidence might help linguists to resolve the issue which my not be resolvable on purely linguistic grounds. CSAS

McCHESNEY, Lea S (U Missouri-Kansas City) "ALTERNATIVE CAPITALISM": LOCATING MEANINGS FOR HOPI ART POTTERY AS INTERCULTURAL PRODUCTION The market for Hopi art pottery is part of the larger market for a particular commodity, the work of art. There is a perception that the American art market represents a "natural" functioning of capitalism: unlike trading in other elite tokens of capitalist success monitored by federal legislation, transactions in art commodities occur in an unregulated, pristine environment perceived to be distinct. Art as cultural object and the social context in which it is produced and consumed are , thus, conceptually segregated from other products and processes of late capitalism in American society. The exchange of Hopi pottery as a form of American Indian art occurs within this quintessential capitalist marketplace. Why, then, is this specific activity represented as "alternative?" Such a representation may acknowledge the inherent disjunction between the exchange of non-industrial, non-mass-manufactured goods produced by non-industrialized others and their consumption by industrialized Anglos in contemporary American market-industrial society. This paper explores how the idea of alternativeness is represented by the three principal populations of the marketplace for Hopi pottery" producers (Hopi and Hopi-Tewa potters of the First Mesa community in northeastern Arizona); mediators (dealers of Hopi art pottery); and consumers (collectors of Hopi art pottery). In conclusion, the question of alternativeness is evaluated in light of the politics of cultural reproduction in the intercultural art market. CSAS

McCOID, Catherine Hodge (Central Missouri State U) THE EVOLUTION OF A WOMAN WARRIOR INSIDE A NACIREMA DOJO Using anthropologist David Jones' book, "Women Warriors" (1997) as a framework, this paper reflects on the evolution of the author as a woman warrior inside a karate dojo in rural Missouri, deep in the heart of Nacirema culture. The focus of the paper is primarily on seven years in the 1970s and 1980s when McCoid was working out actively in the dojo, obtaining a black belt after six years. Most of the people she worked with in that dojo were much younger males, and she is still the only woman to have gotten a black belt from her instructor. While David Jones' approach to women warriors is a nonfeminist one, this paper uses a feminist framework to both examine the author's own experiences as well as how they relate to the status of Nacirema women, including such issues as violence against women. Jones was fascinated with what he perceived as the cultural barriers that many of his women martial arts students had to climb to be able to identify themselves as warriors, while it was often so easy for most of his men students. McCoid also discusses some of the cultural barriers she feels she had to climb in learning to become a warrior inside that dojo. CSAS

McCURDY, David (Macalester) MOVING TARGETS: MOTORCYCLE PARAPHERNELIA I ride with motorcyclists who put stuffed animals on motorcycles that cost as much as Accords, cover them (the motorcycles) with chrome, ride around as couples dressed exactly the same, wear garish vests covered with patches, pins, and a horribly designed club insignia, and talk about things like "Wing Ding". CSAS

McLAUGHLIN, Robert H (U Chicago) LEGAL PLURALISM UNDER THE NATIVE AMERICAN GRAVES PROTECTION AND REPATRIATION ACT: TOOLS OF INTERPRETATION, POINTS OF CONFLICT The NAGPRA framework both recognized Native American ideologies and strives to reconcile them with each other and with Western legal concepts. This is in contrast to the bulk of federal law which generally does not invoke or rely upon ideologies otherwise beyond its purview. This paper summarizes research on legal pluralism and NAGPRA and concludes that the success of legal pluralism here will depend upon the procedural rigor with which the law is implemented and, in particular, the extent to which the many interests in collections subject to the Act will be afforded full and fair opportunities for expression. CSAS/ARS

McLEOD, James R (Ohio State U) CIVIC CULTURE IN RUSSIA AND AMERICA: DECONSTRUCTING PRESIDENTIAL RITUALS AND RHETORIC This paper examines the construction of civic culture through rhetoric and ritual in both Russia and the United States. Specifically, the use of ritual and rhetoric by Presidents in both political systems will be examined in detail. Civil religion, culture specific symbolism, organic ideologies, and rituals of authority will be used as examples of the attempt to construct civic culture in both social systems. The focus of the paper will be the relative power of civic culture in these two very diverse cultural contexts. Media, power, and authority will be analyzed as agents in the social construction of linking symbolic referents between elites and the masses. CSAS

McLEOD, James R (Ohio State U) CIVIL RELIGION AND RHETORICAL RITUALS: THE RITES OF PERSUASION This paper examines the power of civil religion and religious/quasi-religious rhetoric in cross-cultural perspective. An overview of the function of persuasive rhetoric frames a specific analysis of the use of symbolism in cultural process. Special forms of persuasion to be examined include the Gulf War rhetoric of 1990-1991 by both Bush and Hussein, US Presidential rhetoric of 1988, 1992, and 1996, and the rhetoric of the Russian Presidential election of Boris Yeltsin in 1996. If possible, quasi-religious rhetoric and symbolism of the second Gulf Crisis of 1997-98 will also be examined in detail. The goal of the paper is to provide an overview of the power of rhetoric and symbolism as overlapping aspects of political/sacred power in contemporary cultural contexts. ARS

MERRELL, Daniel (Purdue U) THE "EL NIÑOPA" TRADITION OF XOCHIMILCO, MEXICO: A COMMUNAL PRESTIGE ITEM Xochimilco, the southern-most district of Mexico City, is the home of a 400 year-old wooden Christ-child called El Niñopa. This relic is not kept in a church, but rather stays in the house of a Catholic resident of Xochimilco for an entire year, who follows specific rules concerning El Niñopa's care. However El Niñopa remains community property, giving any other resident of Xochimilco the right to enter the host's house to worship it, or even request to borrow it for an evening to sponsor a fiesta in its honor. The blessings received through service to El Niñopa may be explained by an increase in community status from the custodian's manipulation of this prestige item. CSAS

METZO, Katherine R (Indiana U) REVIVING THE PAST AND PROTECTING THE FUTURE: RELIGION, ENVIRONMENT AND POLITICS IN BURYATIA In the economic and political crises which followed the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, questions of health and environment have been left unanswered. Lake Baikal has been one of the success stories of Soviet environmental policy, but I argue that the political rhetoric of the late Soviet and early post-soviet era has done little in terms of environmental protection. Into the space between rhetoric and reality step local populations who, though revived religious traditions, seek to claim authority over local planning and natural resources. In this paper, I focus on ethnic Buryats within the Buryat Autonomous Republic, who, like many other indigenous Siberian populations, have begun reviving shamanic and Buddhist traditions. Religious activities, because of historical context and present circumstances, are highly politicized and have direct relevance to the future of the environmental protection of the Lake Baikal watershed. CSAS

MIYAZAKI, Hirokazu (Northwestern U) RABUKA'S FAITH: THE POLITICS OF MEANING AND ITS LIMITS IN FIJIAN CHRISTIANITY When Sitiveni Rabuka led Fiji's first military coup in 1987, he claimed that he had completed a God-given mission. However, at a church gathering held in November 1996, Rabuka, now Prime Minister of Fiji, apologized to the nation and to God for his past sinful conduct. Rabuka's apology immediately triggered a heated nation-wide debate concerning the relationship between politics and religion. Many prominent critics accused Rabuka of mixing politics and religion in order to avoid accountability for the political problems caused by the coup. Many Fijian Christians, however, pleaded that Rabuka's apology be understood as an expression of faith and not as a political act. In analyses of Rabuka's self-aggrandizing uses of his Christian faith in 1987, anthropologists have focused on the "politics of meaning" inherent in his rhetorical manipulations of symbolic categories such as "chiefs," "land" and "church." Yet, Rabuka's 1996 apology poses an uneasy challenge to such analyses: It was a moment at which Rabuka gave up his capacity to manipulate symbols; at which the politics of meaning stopped in Fijians' indigenous perception. How can we understand the full significance of Rabuka's abeyance of agency in light of Fijians' responses? In this paper, I attempt to answer this question through a discussion of faith as a particular mode of indigenous analysis undertheorized in anthropology. ARS

MOORE, Stan (U Kansas) INDIGENOUS HEALERS' THEORY AND PRACTICE IN THE URBAN COMPLEX OF DAR ES SALAAM This is a study of indigenous theory and its relationship to everyday practice. Every society or those members within a society who recognize themselves as a distinct and collective group have their theory about the world and the way it functions. The indigenous healers of Dar es Salaam, the subjects of this study, are no different. They presented their theories concerning herbal medicine, divination, sorcery and spirit therapy. Through these theories healers apply their medical practice. However, there is a distinction between healers accounts of these bodies of knowledge and their practice in the urban complex. Working with Bourdieu's (1980; 1987) concepts revolving "field," "strategy," and "habitus" this paper seeks to understand the indigenous medical practice in the urban complex and its relationship to theory. In the medical and religious fields of the city healers work strategies, or products of the practical "feel of the game," or habitus. The historical context of Dar es Salaam places healers in a situation in which they must deal with the realities of survival in a competitive and pluralistic medical marketplace. Through experiences in this environment healers accordingly adjust their practice. CSAS

MORGAN, Mindy J (Indiana U) LESSONS IN AND FROM THE FIELD: TEACHING ANTHROPOLOGY AT TRIBAL COLLEGES This paper examines teaching anthropology at a locally controlled tribal college. It looks at how anthropology courses are being designed and taught at a small community college located on a reservation on the Northern Plains. Specifically, the paper addresses the reciprocal relationship created between visiting anthropologists who often teach the courses and members of the extended community as they exchange specialized knowledge. This type of relationship redefines the concept of field work as the anthropologist engages in the promotion of anthropology as a discipline to his/her students while simultaneously conducting independent research within the community. The paper also addresses some of the particularities of instructing students in a discipline that traditionally held that the 'field' existed at some distant locale where the consultants did not have recourse to the materials they helped create. particular attention is paid to how topics such as colonialism, racism, and the problematic connection between anthropology and imperialism are both addressed and received within the classroom setting. Finally, the paper addresses the issue of making anthropology relevant to a rural community that, due to a lack of economic opportunity, prizes technical and vocational knowledge over social or humanistic sciences. CSAS

MULVEHILL, Kate (U Kansas) JOURNEY THROUGH EIGHT VIEWS The Eight Views of Ohmi (Ohmi hakkei) is a theme that has captured the allure of poets and artists of a wide variety of styles ever since its adoption into the Japanese artistic tradition in the fourteenth century. During the Edo period, the theme spread amongst the populace at large. Production for the masses found its greatest expression in the form of woodblock prints, of which Hiroshige's Ohmi hakkei (1834-5) is a masterful example in several ways: seemingly objective depiction of views, the combination of image and famous poetry associated with the site, and the use of poetry to link the viewer with the past. Can it be assumed that experiencing the Eight Views in woodblock form would have been comparable to a journey through time and space? For those who were able to travel the Tokaido to the south of Lake Biwa where the eight sights were located, the prints offered a souvenir by which to re-experience the journey time and time again. For others, including those who were unable to travel, it offered the opportunity to journey mentally into a world at once exotic and at the same time completely Japanese. This paper examines how the combination of view and poetry invites the imagination to wander beyond the frame of the print into a world of poetic vision. CSAS

MYERS, Gail P. (Ohio State U) THE PROMISED LAND: EMERGING THEMES FROM AN INTERVIEW WITH MRS. HELEN GILMORE This is the story of land loss of Randolph slaves, a story which emerged during a research endeavor. The words describe an interview experience with Helen Gilmore, local historian and genealogist but the words do not embody the emotions that engulfed me during the interview. I was told that Mrs. Gilmore knew a substantial amount about the history of Ohio and would probably have information about where African-American farmers were located. From the interview data, I learned that in 1846, 383 Randolph slaves were set free. These recently freed slaves came to Piqua because upon reaching the area that was allocated for them, they were stopped. Unable to reach the land that was promised them, they started back down the Erie Canal. They settled across the river and camped out in Rossville north of Piqua. The interview data suggests that women had an importantion role farm operations. The interview with Mrs. Gilmore prompted these themes as salient and recurrent specific to the land: 1)allocation, 2)appropriation, 3)entitlement, 4)ownership, 5)work on the-, 5)usurping of-, 6)loss of-, freedom, 7)rights, 8)as heritage, and 9)use. I chose to deconstruct the interview by considering all the different levels the Randolph slaves were affected because of powerlessness against the larger social forces. Her story revealed aspects of ritual and tradition. The literature review corroborates data from the interview with Mrs. Gilmore. Regional patterns in the North and South illustrate the pervasivenss of racism toward African-American farmers. I added a sixth step to Denzin's model of interpretation, synthesizing, where I combine all the findings, interview data, and the historical references and conclude that the decrease of African-Americans as farm operators, speaks to systematic and systemic racial practices which prevented the full realization and potential of an occupational group. CSAS

NAPORA, John A (Lafayette C) BLESSING AND POWER IN NORTHERN MOROCCO In this paper I shall explore the role of the famous baraka, "God's blessing," in structuring exchanges between descendants of a saintly lineage and their followers in northern Morocco. Based on twenty consecutive months of field research and supplemented by historical sources, I shall discuss how baraka creates relations of debt, and through time, augments these obligations. This results in greater social asymmetry between the holy lineage and their clients. Despite the tremendous amount of attention that baraka has received in the ethnographic literature, a new perspective is offered, one which describes how this preeminent value becomes a means to elicit and control gifts and services. ARS

NEAL, Beverly E (Ohio State U) INDIAN IDENTITY IN NORTHEASTERN OKLAHOMA The 1990 census shows over 7000 Native Americans residing in the northeastern Oklahoma county of Ottawa. Eight tribes have national headquarters there. Several of the tribes have had close contacts with each other for 300 plus years. These associations play an important role when examining how these Native Americans identify themselves. With the exception of the Quapaw, the Modoc, Miami, Peoria, Seneca-Cayuga, Ottawa, Eastern Shawnee, and Wyandot were relocated to Indian Territory by the late 1800s. Several of the nations lived in close proximity on reservations in what is now the Kansas City area. The Ottawa, Miami, Wyandot, Seneca-Cayuga, and Shawnee have alliances that pre-date forced removal (1830s), having occupied portions of the Great Lakes Region at time of European contact. Intermarriages have occurred between the tribes for hundreds of years, blurring tribal affiliation, or at least increasing options for tribal enrollment. Benefits, such as access to Indian Health Service, child care programs, Indian housing subsidies, etc. are based on being an enrolled member of "a" tribe and do not differ, necessarily, from one tribe to another. Each tribe's administrative ability and/or aggressive pursuit of grants, economic development opportunities, and other funding sources can make membership in one tribe more advantageous than membership in another. Fieldwork conducted during the summer of 1997 with three generations of Indian women living in Ottawa county looked at the various ways in which these women construct their Indian identity. This presentation will examine several of these constructs: tribal enrollment, participation in tribally sponsored activities, access to benefits, family history and tradition, and "looking Indian." In the specific instance of three women, family history and their physical appearance seem to be the determining factors. Tribal affiliation is part of their tradition, but plays a less important role in the way they express their Indianess. CSAS

NOLAN, Justin M (U Missouri-Columbia) and ROBBINS, Michael C (U Missouri-Columbia) CULTURAL CONSERVATION OF FOLK MEDICINAL PLANT USE IN THE OZARKS Several recent studies have been concerned with the geographic and socioeconomic access of rural populations to modern health care delivery systems. Relatively negelected is the commensurate study of access to folk medical systems. Our research in the Ozark and Ouachita Mountain ranges in Arkansas and Missouri reveals that the number of folk medicinal plant applications reported by folk practitioners is inversely related to proximity to urban centers, number of licensed county physicians, degree of commercialization, and population density, or to what has been called "delocalization." Our results support the general notion that a diversity of behavioral alternatives in the form of traditional cultural knowledge and praxis is conserved in rural America. CSAS

NOVECK, Daniel (U Chicago) ANTHROPOLOGY, CHRISTIAN EVANGELISM, AND THE POST-MODERN MOMENT Emerging dialogues between anthropologists and missionaries in Chiapas, Mexico, reflect a wider rapprochement between the two camps. This is a new twist in a much longer history of conflict and collaboration between anthropologists and missionaries, which has itself reflected the vicissitudes of global economies of power and culture. It is by now a commonplace that both anthropology and Christian evangelism, in their modern forms, were made possible by Western colonialism. Because of the common provenance of the two endeavors, they have shared theoretical trajectories, even while their mutual boundary has been a perennial source of dispute. In the early part of this century, the first fissures in the appearance of Western moral and military superiority were accompanied by a retreat from universalizing, evolutionary theories, towards a more relativistic conception of human difference. This movement was common to British and North American anthropology, Protestant mission theory, and other fields such as education. The last quarter of the 20th century has seen a further relativization of the cultural politics of capitalism, Christianity and the nation-state. Once again, the ramifications of these changes for our conceptions of human difference have affected both anthropologists and missionaries, and newly problematized their relationship. In Chiapas, Mexico, the globalization of both Christianity and capitalism are locally reflected in the emergence of a large population of indigenous religious exiles. In this context, older animosities between anthropologists and missionaries have given way to a more constructive dialogue. ARS

OKAMURA, Lawrence (U Missouri-Columbia) GERMANS AS PARTISANS, SLAVERS, AND BANDITS AROUND THE LATE-ROMAN DANUBE For centuries, scholars have struggled to understand Roman-"barbarian" relations between the Empire's apogee (second century CE) and its nadir (fifth century). Until the third century, the Romans seemingly manages both assimilate "internal" Germanic peoples into a Roman style of life and to secure Roman frontiers against less assimilable peoples. During the third century, Roman diplomacy and preventative defense apparently collapsed, virtually inviting raiders into Roman territory. To locate and explain "barbarian" irruptions are yet unresolved problems. Since the narrative sources for Late Antiquity are so fragmentary and tendentious, scholars are driven to speculation, filling gaps in the primary sources by projecting Caesar and Tacitus into Late Antiquity, or retrojecting backward Germanic behavior inferred from the Migration Period. The recent (1992) discovery of a "victory altar" in Augsburg fills gaps and sheds light on a major Germanic incursion across the Danube and into Italy. Upon analysis, the Augsburg altar identifies a raiding group, gives a temporal frame for its predatory movements, and stimulates inferences about the cause for the band's activities. If the Augsburg inscription is harmonized with an underutilized text of Dexippus the Athenian historian, one sees more clearly raiders' movements from Free Germany deep into Roman territory, indeed, as far as Rome itself. The emergent picture, while downgrading "invasions" to "raids" nonetheless does confirm ancient and modern views that "barbarians" wanted booty from Roman civilizations. At the same time, one may advance the view that Germanic leaders were initially stirred by partisan motives, aiding one or another Roman faction. CSAS

O'NEAL, Joseph M (St Edward's U) THE DRAFT DECLARATION OF THE RIGHTS OF INDIGENOUS PEOPLES: SOME IMPLICATIONS FOR ANTHROPOLOGY The draft Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, produced by a United Nations working group with extensive participation by indigenous peoples and various non-governmental organizations, has been temporarily derailed by powerful member states including the US However, the declaration will soon be issued in modified form as part of the UN-declared Decade of Indigenous Peoples. The provisions of the declaration, which is quite radical in its statement of collective rather than individual rights and the broad powers conferred upon indigenous peoples, will have important implications for the practice of anthropology. This paper examines some of these effects of the declaration on both indigenous peoples and anthropology. CSAS

OSWALD, John F (C Wooster) ASSIMILATION AND RELIGIOUS SYNCRETISM: ASPECTS OF FUNCTIONALITY OF THE RURAL ARCHAIC SANCTUARY AT ATHIENOU-MALLOURA, CYPRUS Between the years 800 and 500 B.C.E., known as the period of colonization in the Mediterranean region, two maritime cultures, the Greeks and the Phoenicians began to expand their trade networks in search of economic partners and raw materials. Countless colonies and trading ports arose to capitalize on this new found wealth. Though the two cultures never came into direct military conflict, there were instances where the two met and assimilated. Nowhere is this assimilation more prevalent than on the island of Cyprus. Though coastal, their colonial influence and domination penetrated the interior of Cyprus. In order to define and interpret the impact of cultural influence on the interior, one must examine the rural sanctuaries. In this paper I will address two questions: 1) What role did the rural cult play in the Mediterranean world during the Archaic/Orientalizing period (750-450 B.C.E.)? 2) What outside influence caused this development and how is this change represented in the ritual artifacts? Rural cults represent the often fragile and rapidly changing beliefs of the society. The nature of the iconographic representations reflect the extent of outside influence and the degree of religious syncretism. Using the ideas of center and periphery to distinguish between rural and state sanctuaries, we can interpret the extent of the cultural penetration into the agrarian society by the maritime traders. By focusing on the rural Archaic sanctuary at Athienou-Malloura, I will interpret the extent of cultural assimilation and religious syncretism as well as the function of the sanctuary. CSAS

OZAWA, Hiroko (U Wisconsin-Milwaukee) RECONSIDERATION OF "THE CHRYSANTHEMUM AND THE SWORD": CAN TRANSLATION OF ANTHROPOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION MAKE SENSE? Ruth Benedict's work "The Chrysanthemum and the Sword" is an anthropological attempt to demonstrate the pattern of Japanese behavior. However, this work is difficult to understand in Japanese. I assume that the reason is not only for Benedict's dichotomous view of the Japanese social system, but also her direct usage of Japanese language in her particular interpretation. Benedict's bipolar reciprocal relationships in Japanese society occur in these ways: 1) Japanese passively incur obligations. 2) Obligations are regarded as active repayments. 3) Shame is external sanctions for good behavior; on the other hand, guilt is internal sanctions for good behavior. Then she concludes that Japanese is "shame culture," when compared to the "guilt culture" of the West. "Japanologists" who study images of Japanese culture held by outsiders' claims that Benedict's notion is an inheritance of "Orientalism" in the West and effects American view of "Japaneseness." Takeo Doi and Takie Lebra are criticizing that "shame" feeling is rather internal sanctions of the virtue related to "guilty" feeling in Japanese culture. Thus these scholars agree with the Benedict's "blindness" as a Westerner. The translator of the book, Matsuji Hasegawa, rather claims Benedict's inappropriate usage of Japanese words, which indicates that her Japanese doesn't cover the primary definition of the words. From Hasegawa's notes, I find that Benedict actually misses important evidence. I would examine that Benedict's schema of obligation is systematically generated patterns of Japanese culture using direct usage of Japanese language, which support her belief of "Japaneseness." CSAS

PASSARIELLO, Phyllis (Centre) PILGRIMS FROM PLENTY AND THEIR HEROINES OF HOPE: PRINCESS DIANA, HER PREDECESSORS, HER FUTURE Iconic females in the history of so-called Western Tradition span from Pandora through Eve, encompassing several incarnations of the Virgin Mary, hovering uneasily today upon the Princess Diana, with some glances toward Mother Teresa. This paper will explore the definitions, evolutions and negotiations of the female icon in our larger cultural/cross-cultural/subcultural system, noting connections with core anthropological concepts of totemism and the Trickster, and highlighting an underlying narrative of hope, longing, and desire. Such a narrative, it is suggested, may accompany the human condition and is likely to be pan-human. CSAS

PEARSON, Georges A (U Kansas) THE SMALL BIG PICTURE: IMPROVING THE RESOLUTION OF PREHISTORIC ACTIVITY AREAS THROUGH COMBINED MICRODEBITAGE ANALYSIS AND FINE GRAIN RECOVERY TECHNIQUES The reconstructing links tying the past to contemporary interpretations are woven from our capacity to extract information from the archaeological record. Our ability to recognize specific events that took place in the past rests on the resolution of the instruments we use to gather our data. Since observations are ultimately dependent on our methods, it is crucial that we not only recognize their limits but also use them to their full potential. This paper shifts the focus of attention to the "here and now" by examining the basis and strength of our interpretations from a methodological standpoint, specifically, when trying to piece together the actions that left material remains on ancient living floors and activity areas. Results from an actualistic study demonstrate that this picture can often be blurred by the very means used to acquire it. Debris from a flintknapping experiment, recreating a tool production area, were recovered using 20cm2 units and sifted with fine mesh geological sieves to recover microdebitage. Our results demonstrate how interpretations can become relative when data is gathered by more conventional methods. Several sources of distortion were identified ranging from recovery techniques, statistical analyses to unpredictable biases resulting from the positioning of site grids. CSAS

PETER, Lizette (U Kansas) ORIENTAL FLAVOR: ASIAN IMMIGRANTS DOING BUSINESS IN LAWRENCE, KANSAS The immigrant population in the United States continues to be more and more diverse,. particularly in the Midwest which has recently witnessed a surge in Asian immigrant populations. While many of these "new immigrants" are refugees fleeing political persecution, war, and famine, most come largely for economic reasons and arrive with high expectations of economic success. The purpose of this paper is to investigate and compare the experiences of two business owners in Lawrence, Kansas--one a grocer, the other a restaurateur--who have come to this country from their native lands of Thailand and China to pursue education, economic prosperity, and political freedom. While there is no single profile of a typical immigrant experience, the struggle to find ways, individually and collectively, to insert themselves into the American economic hierarchy, is a common theme of this study. Through the construction of their "metanarrative"--that is, the personal life stories that define the identities and daily activities of these two businessmen and their families within the context of the American mainstream--this study will offer an anthropological perspective on the ways in which these individuals have redefined themselves in their new setting, as well as how they contribute to the larger social world of politics and economics in Lawrence, Kansas. CSAS

PETERSON, Erik L (Ohio State U) RAPPAPORT, MOSES, AND JONES: HOW TO APPROACH AN ARK In 1971, Rappaport applied a systemic "feedback" approach to his studies of tribal religion in his American Anthropologist article "Ritual Sanctity and Cybernetics" (73.1: 59-76). His model of religion was based to an extent on Steward's cultural ecology of the 1950s. Though Rappaport's model was more or less complete in its assessment of the workings of religion as an adaptive system, it did not adequately deal with religion's interaction within the greater contexts of society, in my opinion. The model which I have derived attempts to account for these perceived gaps in Rappaport's model using a hybridized culturally ecological approach. In addition, I utilize a materialistic bent to focus on what is quite possibly the most important single aspect of many religious systems--the role of the relic. After describing and explaining this model of religion's interaction with general society, I apply it diachronically to the classical Hebrew society described in various religious texts; a society reported to have one of the most impressive relics and complex ritual systems in the ancient world. The ultimate goal of this paper is twofold: 1) to define and understand the functions and mechanics of religion and its place within society; and 2) to define and understand the functions and mechanics of the ancient Israelite ritual system. CSAS

PETRIE, Katherine (Indiana U-Bloomington) THE CEREMONY OF IDENTITY: OFFICIAL SYMBOLIC EXPRESSION OF MONGOLIAN IDENTITY IN THE NATIONAL "IKH NAADAM" FESTIVAL From July 11 to 13 every year, Mongolia celebrates Ikh Naadam, a festival centered on the traditional "Three Manly Games" of archery, wrestling, and horse racing. Although smaller Naadams take place concurrently throughout the country, the festival in the capitol, Ulan Bator, is the national celebration. The opening ceremony's pageantry presents symbolic expressions of national identity which are being promoted by the state. This paper explores the use of symbolism in the July, 1997 Ikh Naadam opening ceremony. It is proposed that the identity expressed emphasizes modern Mongolia's link with its national ancestor, Chinggis Khaan. This emphasis is contrasted briefly with the symbolic messages of Ikh Naadam opening ceremonies from Mongolia's socialist era and with pre-socialist Naadam festivals in order to illustrate shifting emphasis in officially promoted Mongolian identity as well as shifts in the motivations for Ikh Naadam over time. CSAS

PHILPOT, J Jailey (U Chicago) IN GOD WE TRUST: THE CHANGING SIGNIFICANCE OF STATE-SPONSORED EVANGELIZATION IN GUATEMALA, 1873-1983 In the past thirty years, Guatemala, like many countries in Latin America, has experienced an overwhelming growth of evangelical Pentecostalism. Long peripheralized, in both numbers and influence, Protestantism veritably exploded onto the primarily Catholic religious landscape--especially in those years following the 1976 earthquake and violent counterinsurgency campaign of the early 1980s. Much of the research on this recent shift has focused on illuminating its political causes and effects, with special emphasis on the financial and ideological ties connecting missionaries with repressive military regimes and both, in turn, with US foreign policy. The upsurge in "born-again" Christianity, thus, appears as the result of interested relations between church and state. Yet historical analyses of early Protestant missionizing in Guatemala demonstrate that linkages, both ideological and real, between the Guatemala state and the Protestant faith are not unique to the latter half of the twentieth-century. Indeed, the first Protestant missionary to Guatemala, arriving in 1882, came at the bequest of then president Barrios. This paper will compare certain historical forms of state-sponsored evangelization in Guatemala from 1873 to 1983, focusing on the intentions behind governmental promotion of non-Catholic faiths and the mediation of these intentions in practice. Such a comparison of particular "public" projects aimed at transforming notions of citizenship and subjectivity indicates that the meaning of "liberal reform" in Guatemala has, itself, undergone a transformation. Likewise has Protestantism experienced a contextual re-valuation. I will argue that these changes illustrate a dialectical relationship between concept and context. ARS

POETHIG, Kathryn (San Jose State U) TRANSNATIONAL 'KINGDOM WORKERS': MIXING UP CHRIST'S BODY IN PHNOM PENH The Protestant church, according to the Cambodian government's Ministry of Religion and Cults, has increased exponentially since its official reappearance in 1990. The church's growth was precipitated by a transnational Christian community of NGOs, mission groups, and denominations traditionally situated in the US with recent strongholds in Asia (South Korea, Hong Kong, Singapore, Taiwan). The predominant influence of non-Cambodians in the church's re-emergence has prompted references to the "trans-national," "trans-cultural," and "trans-organizational...nature of the Body of Christ among the Khmer people." Paradigmatic of this 'body' in transit are Cambodian American "kingdom workers." The presence of Cambodian American Christian missionaries in the Khmer "body of Christ" has linked the transnational "body" of Christianity to Khmerness. As dual citizens of both the US and Cambodia, these Cambodian Americans re-imagine a Khmer identity that is both transnational and non-Buddhist. This is particularly a response to the local reference to overseas Cambodians as anikachun (immigrant), implying less authentic Khmerness. It is also an attempt to disengage Cambodia's elision of nationality (sah) and religion (sahsana) associating Khmerness with Buddhism. As transnational Khmer Christians, Cambodian Americans argue that Christianity transcends national allegiance, thus leaving Khmerness open to multiple religious affiliations. ARS

PRINS, Harald E. L. (Kansas State U) SYMPATHETIC REFLECTIONS ON "TRISTES TROPIQUES": WITH/OUT LÉVI-STRAUSS BACK TO THE BORORO AND NAMBIKWARA OF SOUTHERN BRAZIL Focusing on Lévi-Strauss' famous book "Tristes Tropiques," I will compare his travels into the Mato Grosso (1936, 1938-1939) with my own recent journey (1997) into the region. Offering a series of slides, I will briefly discuss some of the major changes that have taken place among the Bororos and Nambikwaras during the past sixty years. I argue that "Tristes Tropiques" was written as a rejoinder to Rousseau's "Discourse on Human Inequality," a famous work that appeared precisely two hundred years earlier in print. Moreover, I will point out that postmodern textual strategies such as reflexivity and hyper-subjectivity were en vogue well before they were rediscovered by contemporary anthropologists. CSAS

REGAN, Mary (Finney County Historical Society) IMMIGRATION IN GARDEN CITY, KANSAS: A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE This paper compares early Mexican and German-Russian immigration to Garden City, Kansas, with contemporary immigration from Latin America and Southeast Asia. Focusing on the town's perception of new immigrants, the impact of the Ford Foundation's findings on the local community and its history will be examined. CSAS

REICHART, Karaleah S (Northwestern U) GENDER POLITICS AND INDUSTRIAL CONFLICT IN SOUTHERN WEST VIRGINIA COAL COMPANY TOWNS The history of the mountainous state of West Virginia has been marked by repeated violent conflicts surrounding the development and subsequent decline of the regional coal industry. The struggle to unionize southern West Virginia often resulted in brutal battles between coal miners and police. The so-called "mine wars" of West Virginia, which erupted in 1912 and continued sporadically through 1954, were characterized by recurring violent battles between unionized miners and company officials. Today, the coal industry remains marked by recurring strikes and union-industry conflicts. Although they were not permitted to work in the coal mines until the 1970s, women in coal-mining communities have participated in situations of industrial conflict throughout the development of the coal region of southern West Virginia. Based upon original ethnographic field work, this paper examines the many ways in which women in southern West Virginia coal communities have breached the boundaries between the "domestic" and "public" spheres by participating in these situations of industrial conflict. In this paper, I discuss two major aspects of women's participation in conflict activities. I review the documented extent to which women have engaged in acts of political conflict in southern West Virginia, and I present the factors which most likely contributed to the decisions of women to engage, or not to engage, in these situations. In sum, I present an analytical discussion of how women, through participation in conflict activities, impacted the political economy of these rural coal-mining communities. CSAS

REIDHEAD, Mary Ann (U Missouri-St Louis) MEANING, CONTEXT, AND CONSENSUS ANALYSIS IN BECOMING AND REMAINING A BENEDICTINE: THE CASE OF NAZI ERA BAVARIAN NUNS IN THE UNITED STATES The two-step decision that a Catholic woman makes, first to enter and second to remain in a monastery, is the topic of this paper. It is difficult to understand a woman's choice to enter a monastery intent on remaining for life. It is more difficult to understand why she chooses to remain until death. The data collection, analysis, and interpretative methods used to answer these questions integrate quantitative and qualitative approaches--quantitative to facilitate prediction and qualitative to uncover the contextual world and variations in meaning that make monastic vocation a life choice for the sisters in this study. The ethnographic context is a Benedictine monastery in Pennsylvania that is home to 22 nuns, mean age 81, all but five of whom emigrated from Bavaria in 1937. As young women, their superiors relocated them to protect them from Hitler's Germany. The Pennsylvania monastery remains, today, a daughter house of a Bavarian abbey, in contact with the mother house and their original homes and families, while the women, nonetheless, remain faithful to their vocations in a foreign land. Findings from data gathered since May 1977 and from consensus analysis indicate the need for a mixed strategy of quantitative and qualitative approaches to the question of vocation. While quantifiable variables allow conclusions that might otherwise remain unfalsifiable, the question of vocation cannot be reduced to quantitative statements. An approach that integrates ethnographic, interpretive, and quantitative methods can flesh out the multi-variant and ambiguous life choice that a nun makes, to stay. ARS

REIDHEAD, Van A (U Missouri-St Louis) MONASTICISM AND ANTHROPOLOGY: A CASE FOR CONVERGENT METHOD AND THEORY In this paper I report my five-year dialogue with a Trappist monk in which we endeavored to discover a common understanding of our two enterprises. First, we tried to define anthropology in a mutually acceptable way. Second, we attempted to reconcile his monastic with my anthropological understandings of what is important in my research at Holy Trinity Abbey, where he has been a monk since 1947, the year I was born. To our mutual surprise, we arrived at a totally unimagined and, therefore, unforseeable correspondence of meanings. A monk strives to live by a code of fraternal charity that is often described as "seeing Christ in the other." This practice, concept, and theory appears to be analogous to and convergent with cultural relativity, as applied methodologically, interpreted conceptually, and in its predictive, theoretical, frame. Various dimensions of this convergence are explored, leading inevitably to a critique of the two concepts but, possibly, to their deeper affirmation as well. ARS

ROGERS, Linda (Kent State) A ROOM OF MY OWN Virgina Woolf wrote of a woman's need to have a room of her own. For four months, during 1997, I had such a room, a one-room life. I had left a rather large house, complete with all the distractions of a typical working life. Knowing I was going to such a reduced space, I planned what my life would be. The room began as an imagined space, a refuge from the demands of gardens, dogs, work, and home maintenance. What I imagined the room to be set the conditions for the few things I took with me, the limits of perceived need. The space existed, therefore, not only as a room, but as a focus for a lurking self that would accomplish new work when old tasks were dispatched without "interruptions." Interruptions were, of course, perceived as coming only from the outside world. It was not as I imagined. The room was in a building, a building of rooms upon rooms, which does not mean a separate life. Connection came at balconies with ravens, parrots, and doves as visitors; or at the jostling for laundry room use, or favored car bays, and sharp reminders of meals not mine to eat through the scents of exotic spices of India, China, and Malaysia. The was life under, around, above, and between. Interiors were the common point of exterior connections and having time and space, an excess of time, and enough space, did not mean that work evolved. Everyone who came to my room remarked immediately that they envied my small space and state, but none of these visitors made any effort to obtain a room of their own. Keywords: living space, boundaries, sufficiency. CSAS

ROSECAN, Stephen (U Chicago) RE-THINKING REMOVAL AND CHRISTIANIZATION: READING A LATE NINETEENTH-CENTURY CHOCTAW LIFE-STORY In recent years, an increasing amount of scholarly attention has been focused on narratives either written by or recorded from Native Americans. For ethnohistorians, such material often provides valuable insight into non-Western views of the past. Recognizing that social groups understand and order the past differently, that different cultures have different historicities, scholars of Native North America have increasingly used Native narratives to reveal the variant significance and meanings that American Indian groups have attached to historical events. Following much of this recent work, I examine a little analyzed late nineteenth-century Choctaw narrative. Reading the narrative specifically as a life-story, I argue that it presents a different view of both removal and Christianization than is seen in typical scholarly discussions of the Choctaw past. Rather than removal being simply associated with despair, the story fluctuates rapidly between sorrow and happiness, suggesting, I argue, that the Choctaw had alternate ways for thinking about and dealing with loss-- strategies that indicate the shortcomings of associating removal only with Western notions of despair. Simultaneously, the narrative rejects assumptions that Christianization led to the loss of native values and the assimilation of the Choctaw into American society; instead, Christianity becomes indigenized, far from leading to the destruction of the Choctaw, it is seen as allowing the Choctaw to perpetuate themselves and prosper. While I make no claim that the narrative itself is 'representative' of Choctaw views in the late nineteenth-century, I do see it as a Choctaw voice that provides insight into late nineteenth-century Choctaw discourses concerning removal and Christianity. CSAS

ROSS, Larry (U Missouri-Columbia) and ROBBINS, Michael C. (U Missouri-Columbia) JAZZ MUSICIANS, MORTALITY, AND AMERICAN CULTURE This study finds that when compared to classical musicians, African-American and White jazz musicians, considered either separately or together, tend to have significantly 1) lover average ages of death and 2) greater numbers of deaths below their life expectancies. An explanation is offered in terms of the rejection of jazz musicians and the disparagement of this African-American musical genre, which we aregue have conspired to engender stressful lives for both groups of jazz musicians. CSAS

ROTH, Anna (C Wooster) BURIAL OF CIRCUMSTANCE, BURIAL OF INTENT: EMPIRICISM AND HERMENEUTICS IN A STUDY OF MORTUARY MONUMENTS AT THE WOOSTER CEMETERY Mortuary monuments, such as obelisks and single gravestones from two sections of the Wooster Cemetery in Wooster, Ohio are examined to document stylistic changes over time. A theoretical model drawing heavily from Deetz's (1977) method of seriation, and the idea of the gravemarker as an ideo-technic artifact, as well as from processualist developments in the study of mortuary remains, such as role theory, is applied to examine the sample of 447 mortuary monuments which date from the 1830s through the 1940s. However, the model also incorporates a basic idea of some post-processual archaeology: the message the deceased intended the audience to "read" from his or her monuments can be interpreted today. This assertion is made with the caution that the archaeologist should keep his or her own biases in mind when examining archaeological data because they affect its interpretation. The assertion and caution are made because this is an exercise in historical archaeology, which may leave a written record of the lives of past peoples, and because such caution is common in cultural anthropology, which has a close relationship to the archaeology of the historical past. The historical, processual, and post-processual approaches to mortuary archaeology are all used to form a model that views the deceased as both a reflection of his or her culture and society, as well as one who helps to shape them. CSAS

ROWLETT, Ralph M (U Missouri-Columbia) CELTIC RAIDING IN THE IRON AGE Well-established practices of mutual inter-raiding among and by Celts in the Iron Age and Migration Periods are abundantly documented in both the emic and etic ethnohistoric literature for Ireland and the etic ethnohistory of northern Britain. The Continental ethnohistoric evidence is more uneven, but finds support in the Iron Age archaeology of some regions. Both lines of evidence reveal highly patterned behaviors, some of which reduce the number of resultant human casualties, especially when heavily armed warriors raid neighboring tribes of the same cultural background. For the most part Celtic raiding seems to have been terrestrially organized, often focusing sharply on a narrow range of booty, and providing opportunity for exhibitionistic display of bravado. Raiding seems also a way of continuously testing the military prowess of potentially hostile neighboring polities and kin groups as well as the prowess of the forces doing the raiding. More research is required to evaluate hints that some of these patterns extend as far back as the Bronze Age, but there seems to have been a tendency for raiders to be better equipped defensively in later times. CSAS

SALO, Matt (US Census Bureau) A COMPARISON OF SHELTER SEEKING BEHAVIORS OF AMERICAN URBAN NOMADS A comparison of shelter seeking behaviors of four distinct groups of urban nomads, Rom Gypsies, Scottish Travelers, Mexican migrant workers, and homeless drifters, reveals they are confronted with many of the same types of problems and obstacles along their social and spatial itineraries, but vary considerably in their personal resources and handicaps to cope with the problems and access external resources. An analysis of the way each group meets its needs for shelter reveals the role cultural values, social and technical skills, support network of kin and friends, means of transportation, language ability, ethnic stigma, and other factors play in determining the various solutions they come up with in their search for shelter. The available choices and the varying comparative ability to make use of them are described. The subsequent diversity in shelter utilization is shown to be due to the interplay of cultural, personal, and material assets in confronting the physical and social challenges of their travel environments. CSAS

SANDERS, Todd (London School of Economics) WITCHES, RICHES AND MODERNIZATION GLITCHES: WITCHCRAFT AND WEALTH IN NORTH-CENTRAL TANZANIA To many Westerners, it appears self-evident that the belief in witchcraft is something 'traditional' that will, like tradition itself, vanish with modernization. Yet the evidence on this score is far from compelling. Indeed, African witches and people's beliefs in them, far from disappearing, have seemingly found a new lease on life in a number of postcolonial contexts. The aim of this paper is to explore the various discourses on, and linkages between, the categories of 'tradition' (mila) and 'modernity (maendeleo) among the Ihanzu people of north-central Tanzania. Here, villagers' ideas and ideals about development, modernity, and tradition are inextricably tied to their ideas about witchcraft. This is because witchcraft is, and always has been, implicated in the accumulation and destruction of wealth. Traditionally, Ihanzu witches benefited themselves by magically plundering the grain of their neighbours. These transactions assumed a zero-sum game economy where the witch's gain was the moral man's loss. In more modern contexts, however, discourses on witchcraft have multiplied--there are allegedly witches that amass wealth but at no one's expense; and there are those that destroy any signs of modernity but not for their own immediate gain. As such, changing notions of witchcraft in Ihanzu provide a metacommentary on the deeply ambivalent project of modernity itself, expressing people's hopes of enjoying greater material wealth, while at the same time acknowledging their apprehensions about the vast inequalities that such wealth accumulation imply. ARS

SCHMIDT, Richard J (U Nebraska) and ANSORGE, Charles J (U Nebraska) THE FACTOR STRUCTURE OF THE IMAGE OF KARATE BY KARATE PRACTITIONERS AND NON-KARATE UNIVERSITY STUDENTS IN THE UNITED STATES The purpose of this study was to determine the factor structure of the image of karate by karate practitioners and non-karate university students. Subjects included karate practitioners from dojo in Nebraska, Colorado, New York, Missouri, and Florida. Matched, non-karate subjects were recruited from the University of Nebraska. All respondents from this group had never participated in karate training before. Karate subjects gave a brief history of their practice of karate, average frequency and duration of training per week, and their present rank. All subjects completed a 50-item questionnaire that assessed their image of karate. The questionnaire used was a modified version of several others employed in previous cross-national research on the image and perception of judo (Matsumoto, et al., 1995; Iida, et al., 1984; Nakajima, et al., 1993). Subjects responded to each item by using a 5-point Likert scale. Data were analyzed separately for karate and non-karate subjects. All ratings were factor analyzed using a principal components factor analysis with varimax rotation. Squared multiple correlations were used as communality estimates. The findings of the research will be discussed. Comparisons will be made with similar data obtained on judo practitioners in France, West Germany, japan, and Australia, and the United States. CSAS

SCHUESSLER, Sue (U Kansas) MASIZIBA: A CASE STUDY OF STRONG CONGRUENCE BETWEEN PRACTICE AND THEORY MaSiziba, the diviner healer with whom I lived in Southwestern Zimbabwe, achieves congruence between her practice and a strong version of indigenous theory. Though she treats patients with herbal medicines, the most important aspect of her practice, actual and in theory, are her spirits who address problems through her. These voices of the spirits bring legitimacy to the healing ceremonies and the knowledge constructed therein. One reason that she is able to remain faithful to theory is her forceful, domineering personality, leadership traits and intelligence. Her warrior spirits, with the full awesomeness and power of demonstrative trance, come with a convincing, authoritative, and demanding presence. They command legitimacy, respect, and awe. People came from other countries to consult with them. The institutional setting and resulting power relations are also relevant. In the early 1980s, Gordon Chavunduka was instrumental in creating the state recognized Zimbabwe National Traditional Healers Association which certifies traditional healers. Threats of withdrawal of certification create constraints to conform with appropriate behavior. in 1996, ZINATHA was forming groups of officials to pressure patients who had not paid. This recourse to payments helps remove financial constraints that force healers to sell herbal medicines as Moore describes for Dar es Salaam. Both the power of the institutional setting and her own talents give MaSiziba freedom to practice in accordance with her understanding of that which is most efficacious. CSAS

SCHWAB, Penney (United Methodist Mexican American Ministries) RESEARCH AND HEALTH/SOCIAL SERVICE DELIVERY SYSTEMS IN GARDEN CITY, KANSAS Growth of the meat packing industry and the resulting demographic changes in Southwest Kansas have had a profound impact on this area's health and social service systems. This paper examines these changes, including implications of the Ford Foundation's Changing Relations Project and more recent research for the delivery of health and social services in Garden City. Exploration will be made into the evolving attitudes of community leaders and city officials in light of the changes taking place in their town's social and economic structure. Finally, this presentation depicts, from the unique perspective of one community member and agency director, the working relationships between field researchers and human service agencies amidst changing cultures. CSAS

SERED, Susan (Bar Ilan U) TALKING ABOUT MIKVEH (JEWISH RITUAL BATH) PARTIES, OR, DISCOURSES OF STATUS, HIERARCHY AND SOCIAL CONTROL In rituals of female purity, gender hierarchies tend to intersect or overlap with other social hierarchies. Mikveh (ritual bath) parties were traditionally celebrated by North African Jewish women on the night before a wedding, when, according to Jewish law (which, in this instance, is enforced by Israeli secular law) the bride must purify herself in the mikveh in order to engage in conjugal relations of her wedding night. Mikveh parties--which are not required by Jewish law--were exciting affairs at which tasty foods were served and traditional (sometimes bawdy) songs were sung. In contemporary Israel, the rabbinical establishment and the government agency that administers mikvehs have sought to curtail mikveh parties. This paper examines the discourses offered by a variety of groups involved. The ultra-orthodox, Ashkenazi women who manage the mikvehs explain North African Jewish women's attendance at mikveh parties as "primitive," and their own opposition to mikveh parties as "modern." Orthodox and ultra-orthodox rabbis generally explain mikveh parties in terms of "licentiousness" and their opposition in terms of "modesty." Elderly North African women present mikveh parties as "custom" and interpret other people's opposition as "ignorance." Young North African women generally see the required ritual immersion and the mikveh party as intrusions upon their privacy. The negotiation of these streams of discourse sheds light upon interactions of gender, ethnicity, age, and class in the arena of religion. ARS

SEWASTYNOWICZ, James (Jacksonville State U) ACCULTURATIVE CHANGE, INTERETHNIC RELATIONS, AND NATIVE IDENTITY AMONG THE CABECAR OF SOUTHERN COSTA RICA For well over a century, Cabecar-speaking communities of the Talamanca region of southern Costa Rica have been subjected to intensive efforts by missionaries and the Costa Rican government to assimilate into the majority culture. Based on ethnographic research conducted in the Cabecar indigenous reserve of Ujarras in 1997, this paper explores the history and results of those efforts. Special emphasis is placed on examination of: 1) interethnic relations among Cabecars, whites, and other indigenous groups; 2) continued sources of Cabecar-white conflict; 3) the nature of ethnic boundary maintenance; and 4) recent efforts to revive traditional Cabecar culture. CSAS

SHAND, Angela C. (U Wisconsin-Milwaukee) GENDERING THE AUTHENTIC IN GREEK DANCE AND DRESS Dress has always been an essential element of Greek dance events. The traditional official costume worn at festivals, weddings, and other celebrations identified the wearer's village or region and socioeconomic status. Moreover, gender differences in dress, as well as in dance, correspond to traditional gender roles. Women dance gracefully and demurely and take up a minimum of space, and their dress typically restricts movement and is elaborately decorated. In contrast, men take up a great deal of space while executing powerful and showy leaps, squats and kicks, and their dress is relatively simple, offering more freedom of movement. Folk dance performance groups in Greece today use traditional dress to help audiences envision the areas in which the dances originated: traditional dress has thus become a hallmark of authenticity. However, as dress establishes authenticity, it also asserts traditional gender roles in the dance performance itself. Among Greek-Americans, these issues are contested in somewhat different ways than in Greece. In this paper, I will examine reactions to the introduction of traditional dress and dance styles in a Greek folk dance group in Minnesota. While both the young dancers and their parents raised objections to this change, the grounds of their objections differed in ways which underscore the community's conflicts of identity, gender and authenticity. CSAS

SHAW, Jennifer (U Kansas) CHILDREN'S HEALTH IN CHANGING CULTURES While national attention on health care intensifies, the future of those who do not fit traditional health care models remains ambiguous at best. In one Southwest Kansas county, health care providers have expressed difficulty serving those they describe as an "invisible population"--young, working poor, new immigrant families. This paper discusses an ongoing study of barriers to children's health care in two Southwest Kansas counties. The growth in children who are "at risk" due to cultural and language barriers is projected to increase with an expected influx in new, low-wage industries in the area before the year 2000. In order to meet the increased demand for culturally appropriate children's health care, the methods in which care is currently offered, accessed, and delivered must be reconsidered. With discussion of both provider and client perspectives, this paper suggests future directions for improving children's access to health care in changing cultures. CSAS

SHEEHAN, Elizabeth A (American U) THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF SANCTITY: MAKING SAINTS FOR THE THIRD MILLENNIUM Since his election to the papacy in 1978, John Paul II has canonized almost 300 new saints, five times as many as all previous twentieth century popes combined. An additional 1,500 cases are estimated to be under consideration, many of them in support of individuals native to Latin America, Africa, Asia, and Oceania. This paper discusses John Paul's prolific saint making as part of his program for revitalizing the Catholic church in the twenty-first century by making saints more representative of diverse Third World communities. The paper suggests, however, that while diversifying sainthood's membership, the new saint making reinforces a hierarchy of holiness that grants greater value to Eurocentric styles of sanctity than to those meaningful to the varied communities the church not aims to reach. The paper also considers how John Paul's saint making, in focusing on heretofore marginalized groups, may accentuate distinctions between local and Vatican-defined understandings of sanctity that have long existed, but that in combination with postcolonial political sentiments now challenge the church's authority to define holiness. ARS

SHORR, Nick (Indiana U) THE HARD AND THE SOFT: TIKUNA ASSOCIATIONS AMONG CROPPING INTENSITY, AGRO-ECOLOGY, AND WORK Much has been learned over the past few decades concerning both the problematic agro-ecological consequences of increasing cropping intensity in swidden agriculture and the 'sustainable-intensive' practices that mitigate these consequences. However, we know relatively little about cultivators' understandings of the agro-ecological changes which they both cause and must respond to. Fieldwork was conducted in Campo Alegre, which has grown very rapidly over the past forty years and is currently one of the largest swidden communities on record in Amazonia. Reported ages of fallow at clearance were very young; cropping intensities appeared very high. Changes in ecological conditions which directly influence the experience of work were the most frequently mentioned changes over the past generation. 'Hard' vs 'Soft' were primary dichotomizing criteria used by informants in triad sorts of taxa in three agro-ecological domains--soils, trees, and 'weeds' (herbaceous volunteers). In each case these criteria were perceived as having direct implications for the experience of agricultural tasks--slashing, felling, planting, weeding, and harvesting. Furthermore, the 'hardness/softness' of taxa in these domains was regularly perceived as directly influenced by the relative maturity of the previous fallow. These Emic associations between cropping intensity and agro-ecology on the one hand, and between agro-ecology and work-experience on the other, were matched by Etic measurements of site-composition and of work-rates respectively. These work-mediated understandings of 'agricultural intensification' have implications for the emergence and acceptance of 'sustainable intensive' practices. CSAS

SMITH, Julie A (U Kansas) THE SOCIAL IMPACT OF NEONATAL TECHNOLOGIES The premature child represents a strange phenomenon in American society. He is part of a "shadow land" that exists "between the fetus and the viable newborn." Premature babies have existed for as long as humans have, yet in recent years their existence has become much more than just a short, sad event as technologies have been developed to treat their numerous medical problems and sometimes save their lives. In short, the existence of premature infants has come to be a battle of power, economics, and of suffering. The development of neonatal technologies has enabled the lives of some premature babies to be saved. These same developments have cost the American public billions of dollars in futile attempts to save too-small infants. These developments have cost parents hours of waiting and hoping, only to find that their child would not be the "miracle baby" who would live. Perhaps these technological developments have cost the infants the most. They are the ones who have endured hours of pain and suffering so the knowledge base of prematurity might grow a little, and the area in the shadows might be diminished by an inch or two. CSAS

SNOW, Alex (Ohio State U) INTER-ETHNIC RELIGIOUS APPROPRIATION: THE HISTORICAL DETERMINATION OF THE SHOSHONI-CROW SUN DANCE In 1938 a Crow named William Big Day found himself on the Wind River Reservation of the Shoshone. Having dreamt of a "song" that would benefit himself (and his people), he recognized its drumbeat pulsating from the Shoshone Sun Dance already under way. Presenting himself to a medicine-man named John Truhujo, he asked for and received permission to participate. During a subsequent vision, Truhujo passes to him the sacred "medicine feathers." Truhujo then legitimates Big Day's vision, and in 1941 symbolically recreates the act by "passing the medicine" to Big Day in the first Sun Dance on Crow Reservation since 1875. By the turn of the century, reservation maps geographically portray the Crows' "bordered" relationship to their neighbors (both Indian and non-Indian). Yet, what is not shown was the "controlled permeability" of those boundaries, control vested amongst the Crows and manipulated by individuals such as William Big Day. This permeability allowed both individuals and groups to "appropriate" materially and ideologically, consequently creating an increased knowledge and interest in common predicaments during the 1920s, especially the non-secular devices for dealing and adapting to such predicaments. My argument is that the very nature of Crow "pragmatism," embodied by individuals like Big Day and portrayed by the Crows' interrelationship with the Shoshone, combined with the cultural-historical complex, created an environment hospitable to inter-ethnic cooperation and communication. Implicit in this statement is the assumption that "one product of this dialogue is the passing of ritual/ideology, hence the Shoshoni-Crow Sundance. CSAS

SONNINO, Roberta (U Kansas) MARKETING COMMUNITY IDENTITY: TOURISM DEVELOPMENT IN LAWRENCE, KANSAS Recent "bottom-up" approaches to tourism development suggest that destination areas capitalize on local resources and accentuate unique identities. Within this general framework, many communities have turned increasingly to culture and heritage as means of raising their competitive profile. Based on the analysis of data collected during a survey on tourism development strategies in Lawrence, Kansas, this paper explores structural ties between the production of culture, the creation of a community identity, and tourism consumption. Under the assumption that any attempt to turn "heritage" into a marketing tool takes place in a context of social and cultural values, some critical issues in linking heritage and tourism are addressed and discussed. CSAS

SOOTKIS, Ruby (Dull Knife Memorial Foundation) and STRAUS, Terry (U Chicago) FAMILY, TRIBE, AND REPATRIATION In 1995, the Northern Cheyenne tribe repatriated the remains of tribal members killed in the Ft. Robinson massacre from the Smithsonian Museum in Washington, DC. The remains, including those of the immediate family of Chief Morning Star or Dull Knife, were reburied in Lame Deer, Montana, according to decision by the tribal government. Descendants of Chief Morning Star, however, sought a different disposition for the remains of their ancestors and their voices were drowned out by tribal authority and by federal policy of dealing with tribal governments rather than with individuals or families. This paper is an examination of the repatriation, the objections of the descendants, and the need for procedures to protect family and individual interests in repatriation generally. CSAS/ARS

SOUERS, Jennifer E (U Missouri-Columbia) PICTISH RAIDING PATTERNS ALONG THE ROMAN FRONTIER The Picts are first documented as enemies of the Britons by the Roman historian Eumenius in 297 AD; however it is not long after Roman contact that the Picts establish themselves as Roman enemies. The repeated raiding of Roman outposts in Northern Britain by the Picts, or Pictii as the Romans called them, is clearly known today from Roman historical accounts, but what remains unclear is the specific motivation for these raids. Did the Pictish "foul hordes" mean to terrorize the Romans, in hopes that the legions might pack up and leave? Or, was their goal more specifically to deprive the Romans of some of their move valuable possessions? During a successful raid, goods like military supplies, livestock, and precious household items could be taken from the Romans, and in the process the Picts could kill off some of the enemy soldiers. An examination of archaeological remains from sites along the Roman walls and in Pictish Scotland, as well as a study of historical sources from this time, may reveal that the Picts were raiding their neighbors to the south to acquire material goods in much the same way as Celts in other areas of Europe were known to do. The foul Picts may have appeared belligerent and bloodthirsty to the Romans, but perhaps they were merely opportunistic, seeing a chance to annoy, if not intimidate, their enemies, while robbing them of their precious commodities. CSAS

SPINELLI, Maria-Lydia (DePaul) WHEN TRICKSTER BECOMES THE RULE: HEGEMONY, DISNEY IMAGINEERING, AND OWNING THE GROUNDS FOR ACTION Victor Turner's model of liminality and structure has by now become the foundation of a tradition in cultural critique. However, while opening the door for others to examine what he called "symbolic genres of industrial leisure" he coined the term "liminoid" to set off some forms of cultural production that looked like liminal but were not so. In this paper, I look at the various manifestations of the trickster in Disney productions through the Turnerian lens to raise questions about a potential transition from liminal to liminoid, from ritual to theater ("rituoid" in Terry Turner's word). I will explore the potential consequences of an instrumentalization of the trickster still as a mediator of change and by extension of multiplication, growth, diversification creativity and, yes, even stratification. In this endeavor, the differences between liminal and liminoid are not always possible to assess without the aid of a moral attitude in the intention of our analytical practice and a willingness to accept a degree of ambiguity and relativity in our own construction of reality-in-process. CSAS

SPINKS, C.W. (Trinity) THE ROAD OF EXCESS LEADS TO THE PALACE OF WISDOM: OR, BOUNDARIES, DREAMWALKING, RE-CREATION, AND TRICKSTER This paper will look at the advantages of excess using Trickster's challenges to cultural order to sketch some of the boundaries of our fantasy lives in private and public dreams. It will use Trickster as "the enemy of boundaries" to remind us that our culture's restrictions are first and foremost arbitrary and to look at modern techno-culture as a dreamwalk in a land of extremes where desire apparently has no limits, where one is free of Kantian Categories, and where choice approaches infinity. It will suggest that such a state of extremes and excesses activates and vitalizes the human imagination to refurbish, re-create, and reshape memories, relations, spaces, and culture toward, what William Blake called, a more "Human Face." CSAS

STAMPS, Richard B. (Oakland U) AFTER 40 YEARS, THE IMPACT OF MORMON MISSIONARY WORK IN TAIWAN Mormon missionaries arrived in Taiwan on June 1, 1956. In 1996, as part of the 40th anniversary celebration, a discussion among local and foreign members and leaders reflected and focued on the impact of the LDS church on Taiwan. This paper will briefly review the history of the work, the missionary methodology and their attempt to identify possible areas of impact on Taiwanese society. In the conclusion, I will attempt to assess their significance. ARS

STANLAW, James (Illinois State U) WHAT'S THE COLOR OF JAPANESE BLUEGRASS?: RESPONSE AND CREATIVITY IN A "BORROWED" MUSICAL GENRE In this paper I will examine the reasons for the popularity of American bluegrass-style country music in Japan. On the surface, this fad seems puzzling and contradictory. Southern Appalachian roots, race, a strong fundamentalist-Christian gospel music tradition, and an elderly American audience are all features that would suggest bluegrass music would be one of the American things LEAST likely to appeal to Japanese young people. Instead (while admittedly not being the most popular form of borrowed music in Japan) there is a sizable and consistent bluegrass fol lowing, of both fans and musicians. There are at least two major bluegrass festivals held every year, and there is a Japanese bluegrass music journal which has been around for over two decades. There are even some critical American bluegrass albums available in Japan but not in the United States. I argue that this popularity of bluegrass music should actually not be surprising, and that bluegrass music, indeed, even has certain connections to older styles of Japanese such as enka, and other folk and pop syncretisms. Listening to--and performing--bluegrass music is one way for Japanese young people be nostalgic yet hip, Western but still traditional, and musically "exotic" or experimental while at the same time remaining quite conservative. Rather than being derivative or imitative, I claim that this absorption of an indigenous American musical style is one more example of a Japanese IMPORTATION and domestication, rather than of a Western EXPORTATION or exploitation. Japanese are often accused of needlessly appropriating cultural capital from the US or Europe in hopes of being "modern," Western," or "chic." I suggest that such claims are too simplistic, and ignore both Japanese creativity within a borrowed genre as well as resistance to outside cultu ral domination. CSAS

STANLEY, Laura (U California-San Diego) AIDS AS CALLING, AIDS AS GIFT: THE SPIRITUAL MANAGEMENT OF STIGMATIZED IDENTITY This paper explores the adaptive use of spiritual metaphor to counter negative social constructions of AIDS that stigmatize the HIV infected as immoral and/or deviant. In contrast to metaphors embraced by mainstream religion which shame and alienate persons with HIV, metaphors endorsed by New Age philosophies support transformation of a stigmatized identity into one which is locally empowered and spiritually driven. My conclusions are based on 18 months of participant-observation and personal interview with HIV+ persons living in San Diego. The dominant cultural model constructs AIDS as a disease incurred by immorality and deviancy. Significantly, religion has played a key role in forming this prevailing construction. In light of the rejecting and stigmatizing interpretations of AIDS favored by mainstream religions, the Church has not been an accommodating resource for HIV+ persons who also seek spiritual support. However, metaphors which resist or reject the dominant construction of AIDS also have roots in the spiritual realm. I have identified three general categories of spiritual metaphor being appropriated in this manner: AIDS as Divine plan; AIDS as higher calling; and AIDS as a gift from God. Specifically, spiritual metaphor is used to reinterpret one's seropositivity as a meaningful event which clarifies or redefines life purpose and personal identity. Moreover, metaphors which support rather than discourage the will to live may enhance personal resilience. My conclusion is that certain New Age metaphors provide a means to transform and transcend negative social constructions of AIDS. ARS

THORNSEN, Hans Bjarne (U Kansas) MOVING IMAGES: LEGEND AND THE IDEA OF TRAVEL IN HIROSHIGE'S TOKAIDO During the years 1833-4 Utagawa Hiroshige (1797-1858) prepared a series of woodblock prints that catapulted him from a position of an obscure artist to that of a celebrity in the Edo world, and gave him fame lasting into the twentieth century. The series was the Fifty-three Stations of the Tokaido, each highlighting a station along the main highway connecting the old capital Kyoto with Edo, the new capital of Japan. This series of travel prints became a cultural icon, and a number of legends have associated themselves with both the production of the series and with the source of Hiroshige's inspiration for the individual designs. Hiroshige, the struggling artist, actually traveled, so the story goes, the Tokaido highway, from Edo to Kyoto together with the retinue of the annual gift horse from the Shogun to the Emperor in Kyoto. Hiroshige presumably made sketches of the scenery and conceived the idea of the series. Closer examination of this story reveals it to be, in all probability, a legend with little fact in reality. There is no contemporary evidence that he actually traveled to Kyoto and the individual designs reveal traces, not of real sites, but the works of the other woodblock artists. It is a testament to his genius that we have accepted in our minds his images as the true view of the highway, in much the same way we have accepted the legend of the traveling Hiroshige. CSAS

TIMMERMAN, Nicole (Grinnell C) FINGERPRINT RIDGE-WIDTHS AS A WAY OF DETERMINING AGE: THE ROLE OF PRE-HISTORIC CHILDREN There is little recorded about the roles and work performed by children in pre-history. Experiments show that the size of the ridge-widths of fingerprints found on a clay object can be used to determine the age of the producer. This technique will produce a way of identifying clay figurines and vessels produced by children. CSAS

TOMASEK, Aimee (Valparaiso) THE CZECHO-AMERICAN CELEBRATION-

CLARKSON, NEBRASKA, USA Clarkson, Nebraska, is a rural community of about 700 inhabitants in the east central part of Colfax County, Nebraska. Most of the residents are of Czech descent, and many of them are my relatives. I have spent a great deal of time, since graduate school, photographing and doing ethnohistory in this setting. I will interrogate customs of various vintages as well as romanticized assumptions about such customs, as I focus on this particular Czech Days event. CSAS

TURNER, Edith L B (U Virginia) RELIGIOUS EVENT AND RELIGIOUS RITUAL: PERFORMANCE AMONG INUIT WHALERS Viewing many religious rituals one is struck how many celebrate and reenact some central religious event, such as: event, the capture of a spirit-inhabited whale--ritual, whaling festival; event, flight from Egypt--ritual, Passover; event, Black Elk's vision--ritual, Ghost Dance; event, Hajar's search for water for her son Ishmael/ritual, the running at Safa in the Mecca pilgrimage; event, the menstruation of Luweji Ankonde, foundress of the Ndembu--ritual, the Ndembu menstruation ritual. There are many other examples, though my main material will be the Inuit whaling festival. The paper explores the problem of the constructed ritual. What is its origin, is it a semi-theatrical artifice, lesser than the original event? In a sense these two acts, event and ritual, are twins. A religious event in time, with a strongly historical aspect, fortuitous and unique, was an event in the regular sense--but being religious, it was rife with spirit power. Its twin, a ritual usually instituted by the spirit figure concerned, plays out the event as a kind of repeat that has a curiously different quality--not history now, not fortuitous like the coming of a whale or the coming of a vision, but with a kind of inevitablity, a concreteness, a certainty--power transferred from the "potential" of hunting or incipient shamanism, for instance, to another level of actuality. The ritual has a built-in "now you see it" factor, it involves a sense of covenant, a deep seating of what was a flash in regular time. And now the ritual exists somehow as a true understanding of what that event was intended for, and is seen as its fruition. I use Victor Turner, Richard Schechner, Jonathan Horwitz, Roy Wagner, Robert Desjarlais, and Tom Driver on the question of performance. Further discussion is needed. ARS

VAN HORNE, Wayne (Kennesaw State U) CULTURAL MODELS IN MARTIAL ARTS TRAINING: SEQUENTIAL LEARNING IN SHORINJI-RYU KATA Research concerning cultural models has primarily focused on attempts to understand the informal, assumed models shared by individuals within a society. Explicitly created, formal models also exist, and their analysis can provide insight into the informal schema that form their basis. This research provides an example of this approach by examining one domain of the formal model used for teaching a system of Japanese martial arts, Sakugawa Koshiki Shorinji-Ryu Karate-Do. The analysis focuses on the domain of prearranged practice forms (kata) in order to examine the embedded schema. This Karate-Do system has an explicit model governing its sequence of instruction, and an analysis of the domain of kata indicates that the training progression teaches both a variety of specialized physical and psychological skills as well as culturally-defined spiritual concepts. The structure of the learning progression of kata is designed to allow a student to cumulatively learn these skills and concepts and to synthesize and integrate them for practical use. The analysis of this domain provides insight into the cultural concepts that form the basis for the formal cultural model of teaching. CSAS

WATANABE, Buchiro (SUNY at Stony Brook) PILGRIMAGE IN SHINGON BUDDHISM: THE VENERATION OF KOBO DAISHI KUKAI AT MOUNT KOYA, JAPAN Shingon, a form of Vajrayana Buddhism, is central to Japanese culture and society. The founder of the school, Kobo Daishi Kukai (d. 835), continues to be a culture hero in contemporary Japan. This particular school of Buddhism, along with the life and work of its founder, is the least studies of Japanese religious ideas and practices in western academic literature. To make up for this lacunae, this paper presents the life and works of Kukai and his influence among the contemporary pilgrims (over a million annually) who visit his mausoleum on Mount Koya. For most followers, Kukai is still alive being in a state of eternal meditation watching over them until the last Buddha, Maitreya, appears in this world. The pilgrims believe that the act of climbing Mount Koya to meet Kukai is an important purification ritual to cleanse sins so as to attain a type of enlightenment. Theoretical considerations follow Van Gennep's notion of "rites of passage" and Victor Turner's idea of "liminality" to analyze the experiences of the pilgrims. This work contributes to the nascent field of Shingon studies both in the anthropology of Buddhism and religious studies. ARS

WEIGELE, Katharine L (U Illinois at Urbana-Champaign) TRANSFORMING CATHOLICISM IN THE PHILIPPINES: MASS MEDIA, RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCE, AND IDENTITY The El Shaddai movement began in Manila as a radio program, and has since grown into a transnational Catholic Charismatic movement of 5-7 million followers. El Shaddai, with its characteristic lay leader, "Brother Mike," occupies a controversial conceptual space that is both within and outside the Philippine Roman Catholic Church. The Philippine Church courts El Shaddai's leader and his massive following, while maintaining a safe distance from El Shaddai's often unorthodox practices and ideas. Likewise, El Shaddai members forge new religious identities and experiences in opposition to what they call Catholic "traditions." At the same time, they identify themselves a Catholics, and the Church's (equivocal) approval of El Shaddai bestows a sense of legitimacy on the movement. One of the ways in which El Shaddai formulates this controversial position vis a vis the church and "tradition" is though its use of mass media. This paper explores how radio- and television-based experience, as well as derivative forms of community such as massive, nationally-broadcast rallies, is deeply embedded in the experience of the movement as a whole, and is central to the movement's strategic position of dependence on and independence from the institutional Church. A such the centrality of mass media in religious ritual has implications for new forms of community and religious experience amongst Filipino Catholics, as well as for broader reformative trends within the institutional Church. ARS

WESCH, Michael (Kansas State U) KIDS IN A PHISHING COMMUNITY: AN EXPERIMENT IN THE TRANSCENDENCE OF CULTURE If culture is learned behavior, its seems to follow that we should be able to unlearn it. But as anthropologists, we have become all too familiar with its stubborn pervasiveness. Some researchers have proposed that it is impossible for humans to divest themselves of their own culture. Others have countered this view, claiming that individuals may transcend culture. The following is an experiment to test the possibility of such a transcendence. A small group of youths in a nomadic band-tour community are the subjects of this experiment, chosen for their strict anti-culture ideology, favoring the "natural" and "primitive" in all aspects from material appearances of clothing and body adornment to intangibles such as beliefs and values. The paper first tells of the remarkable "first encounter" between the researcher and his small group, then proceeds to examine their anti-cultural ideology. The paper argues that the group's way of acting "naturally anti-cultural" is actually a cultural system itself. Then, by analyzing the various ways in which the group's "natural" culture varies from the culture they were born and raised in, the paper concludes that those aspects of culture which may be made conscious may be transcended, but some aspects of culture become hard-wired into our biological make-up and can not be changed. The researcher then calls for more case-studies such as this one, as well as interdisciplinary collaboration to further explore what aspects of culture may become hard-wired and unchangeable and which may be transcended. CSAS

WHITTAKER, John (Grinnell C), BRENTON, Barrett (St John's U) and KAMP, Kathryn (Grinnell C) CORN STORAGE IN SIMPLE PITS A group of storage pits constructed and used as a class project provided both substantive information on storage pit technology, and experience in experimental design and analysis for students. Four pits were dug in part with primitive tools, allowing some quantification of digging effort. Dry corn both shelled and on-the-cob was stored in two different depths of pit, internal temperature and carbon-dioxide were monitored throughout the winter, and aflatoxin levels were measured when the pits were emptied. The results showed that simple storage pits were adequate for preserving corn through the winter, but would be likely to fail as weather becomes warm and wet in later spring. CSAS

WIGHTMAN, Jill M (U Kansas) THE POWER OF HEALING: PENTECOSTAL CONVERSION IN COCHABAMBA, BOLIVIA In the last decade the percentage of Bolivia's population that practice some form of Protestantism has climbed to ten percent of the total population, drawing primarily from the poor, indigenous majority. While numerous studies of Protestant conversion have been done in Central America, Brazil, Chile, and other Latin American countries, little research has been done in Bolivia, a country that still has a very strong tradition of indigenous and "folk" religion. Based on field work done among four Pentecostal congregations in Cochabamba, Bolivia, during the summer of 1997, this paper examines what is the most prevalent theme in Pentecostal discourses: healing. Divine healing is the central point in most conversion narratives (testimonios); petitions for healing dominate prayer meetings; and the quest for healing is responsible for drawing many of the large number of people who turn out for mass Pentecostal campaign meetings. This paper explores Pentecostal conversion narrative as commentary on the disempowering effects of institutional biomedicine and increasing Pentecostal conversion as a response to modernity. ARS

WILLIAMS, Jay (U Chicago) MILITARY SERVICE, NATIVE AMERICANS, AND NAGPRA Native Americans have a long history of extraordinary support of the United States military. American Indian veterans are highly respected in every American Indian tribe and community, recognized in every pow-wow and community event, and honored in myriad ways in everyday life. Unlike other Native Americans, whose bodies have found their way into museums and university collections, Native American soldiers who have given their lives for America are returned, like all other soldiers, for burial in military cemeteries. This paper examines the implications of this distinction, including the apparent assumption that Indians are Indians unless they are in the military, where they are Americans more than they are Indians. CSAS/ARS

WILSON, Natalia (U Chicago) WHAT UNIVERSITIES DON'T KNOW ABOUT NAGPRA A recent conference sponsored by the Johnson Fund of the Master of Arts Program in Social Sciences at the University of Chicago brought Tim McKeown, head of the NAGPRA committee to the University. His visit revealed the interesting fact that the University, while sponsoring an academic conference and offering academic coursework on NAGPRA and non-NAGPRA repatriation, had not yet completed its own NAGPRA inventory. "We don't have anything" of "NAGPRA doesn't apply to us" are the usual responses to this observation: both are false. This paper describes the inventory process and findings by University of Chicago students and makes the strong recommendation that other universities undergo the same process. CSAS/ARS

WINKELMAN, Michael (Arizona State U) CROSS-CULTURAL ECOLOGICAL AND SOCIO-POLITICAL PREDICTORS OF HUMAN SACRIFICE Harner proposed that the causes of Aztec human sacrifice, and in particular cannibalism, lie in ecological factors--protein shortages, famine, population pressure, unfavorable agricultural conditions, and environmental limitations of the expansion of agriculture. Critiques of his position have proposed that cannibalism was motivated by a wider system of economic production, distribution networks, and geopolitical dynamics. This paper reports cross-cultural studies of human sacrifice based on the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample. It shows the empirical contributions of ecological factors and religious conditions to human sacrifice and extends the analyses to examine the political factors involved. Societies with human sacrifice are characterized by intensive agriculture, fixed residence, high population density, and other measures of complexity, but analyses indicate that none except population density are significantly correlated with human sacrifice. While there is no significant association with variables measuring food adequacy or threat of famine, there are independently significant contributions to the prediction of human sacrifice by measures of population pressure, war for land and resources, and measures of low religious cohesion. This paper expands considerations from these ecological bases and ideological factors to examine the broader social and political determinants of human sacrifice. In addition to the significant association with ecological variables, legitimate human sacrifice is also significantly predicted by variables indicating Higher Political Organization based on Alliance or Confederacies; and Chief Executive Selected by Ruling Family (Multiple R = .82, R2 = .67, F ration = 20.23, 4 & 40 df, p < .000). ARS

WINTERS, Clyde A (Uthman dan Fodio Institute) JAGUAR KINGS: OLMEC ROYALTY AND RELIGIOUS LEADERS IN THE FIRST PERSON The Olmec people controlled much of Mexico for hundreds of years. During this time they lift many inscribed steles, celts and masks. Due to the decipherment of Olmec writing we can now read these historical documents. In this presentation the author will discuss the government of the Olmec and the role played in this polity by Olmec religious leadeers, kings and governors. Generally, this presentation will provide voices to the Olmec celebrities that lived in the forests of ancient Mexico. CSAS

WINTERS, Clyde A (Uthman dan Fodio Institute) THE OLMEC RELIGION In this workshop the presenter will explain the Olmec religion. the Olmec people controlled much of Mexico for hundreds of years. During this time they left many inscribed steles, celts and masks. Due to the decipherment of Olmec writing we can now read these historical documents. Using Olmec documents and iconography evidence the beliefs and rituals of the ancient Olmec people of Mexico will be illustrated. Special attention will be given the religious terminology of the Olmecs, and the important role that youth played in Olmec religious rituals. ARS

WOODRICK, Anne C (U Northern Iowa), HARTLEIP, Jill E (U Northern Iowa), and IRELAND, Cara (U Northern Iowa) RELIGION AND COMMUNITY AMONG RECENT LATINA IMMIGRANTS IN IOWA In response to the availability of jobs in meat processing plants, Latino immigration has increased dramatically throughout the Midwest since the late 1980s. About half of the recent immigrants are women. Despite the large number of Latina immigrants into the Midwest, rarely are women's voices in this immigrant experience heard. Studies of Latina immigrants elsewhere in the US emphasize economic and political issues, and have not critically examined the role of religion in the immigration process. The objective of this paper is to examine how religion facilitates the creation and maintenance of community identities for Latin American women who have recently immigrated into three Iowan towns. Our research highlights 1) a more dynamic conceptualization of community that embraces the transnational characteristic of immigrants' lives and the prejudices and racism experienced by Latino immigrants in rural Midwestern towns, and 2) how immigrant women utilize religious beliefs and practices in adjusting to different socio-cultural environments. In particular, we focus on the presence of the divine in women's lives and how this informs community identity. Our analysis is based on information collected through formal and informal interviews with Latina immigrants and participant observation in religious activities during the summer-fall of 1997. ARS

ZIMBECK, Meagan (U Kansas) SEXUALITY AND SOCIAL KNOWLEDGE AMONG TEENAGE GIRLS It is remarkable that culture and biology do not agree about the onset of the human reproductive span. Female bodies, around the age of twelve, are thrust into reproductive capability at menarche. Every community in the world, however, has a set of cultural beliefs and values that constrain the fertility of adolescents. These sanctions are part of a larger cultural belief system that regards and influences individual bodily experience. This paper is concerned with the social production of reproductive knowledge, its internalization by individuals, and its overall effect on teen sexuality and pregnancy. Based on extended participation and observation with a Midwestern high school, the paper first seeks to evaluate the various sources of social knowledge that constrain adolescent sexuality and pregnancy, with emphasis on the dominant cultural beliefs regarding the adolescent body and its functions. The second objective is to describe how this prevailing consciousness is internalized by teenage girls. How do they experience the body, sexuality, pregnancy, and childbirth. How are contradictory cultural lessons manifested in individual choices? CSAS

ZIVKOVIC, Marko (University of Chicago) WHY VOTE FOR MILOSEVIC?: BEWILDERMENT, TACTICS OF SURVIVAL AND THE NON-SYNOPTIC VIEW A Serbian opposition leader succeeds in converting a Serbian peasant to his views. "So you'll vote for me," he says parting. "No, I'll vote for Milosevic," the peasant answers. "But we just agreed on everything," cries the exasperated leader, "why Milosevic?" When you get in power I'll vote for you," the peasant replies. The anecdote still percolates widely in Belgrade as a story "truer than true" that encapsulates what a domestic political scientist termed "the phenomenon of support for unsuccessful authorities" - the fact that Milosevic had won repeatedly in multi-party elections despite the disastrous effects of his rule - a drastic drop in living standards, reduction of the country to pariah status, one of the highest hyper-inflations in history, and a lost war. The paper will examine sociological and popular explanations of this phenomenon and offer an account that will combine personal experiences of everyday life under the 1993 inflation and linguistic analysis of election slogans. Perceived transparency or opacity of "authorities" to "ordinary" citizens will be related to a distinction between "strategies" of political choice and "tactics" of everyday survival. It will be argued that these tactics appear contradictory and incoherent when viewed from a totalizing, synoptic perspective. What appears as the paradox of the support of unsuccessful authorities might be in the eye of the (synoptic) beholder. Rather than offer yet another coherent explanation of the "phenomenon," the paper will remain deliberately non-coherent thus modeling the "incoherence" of situated tactics of coping with an incoherent situation. CSAS

ZLOBIN, Nikolai V. (Demokratizatsiya, the Journal of Post-Soviet Democratization) NATIONAL PROBLEMS OF TRANSITION FROM CENTRALIZED STATE TO FEDERALISM IN RUSSIA Russia still lacks the necessary qualities to be called a federalized government. Although the 1993 Constitution formed the basis for the development of Federalism and steps were taken in that direction, many persistent problems hinder the transition from centralized state to federation. These problems are rooted in history, in the Stalinist system of national and federal structure, as well as in the customs, traditions, and national culture of the Russian empire--for example, the continuing policy of applying both territorial and pure national criteria to determine administrative divisions of the federation. Other problems stem from the economic and political realities resulting from the breakup of the Soviet Union. Financial inequality between different parts of the country has led to political blackmail of the central power of the federation which are also contributors. A conflict exists between the goal of some political and national organizations to maintain Russia's modern borders and the machinations of federation members advocating full or partial independence. This conflict became acute after the signing of treaties between Russia and Belorussia. Numerous questions are raised regarding legal aspects of the transition to Federalism. Today, in Russian political life, there are two very different bases for Federalism--the Constitution of the country, and the direct treaties between the central power and regions, which go unrecognized in the Constitution. Nearly 30 units of federation exist under the Constitution, leading to varying interpretations of significant issues. CSAS